Preventing the weaponization of outer space: Is a Chinese-Russian-European common approach possible?

Preventing the weaponization of outer space is one of the most relevant issues of the current space law debate. In recent years discussions on this issue have significantly increased in international fora, such as the UN Conference on Disarmament and the COPUOS. While it has not been possible to arrive at an agreed solution on how to efficiently deal with the problem of possible weaponization of outer space so far, several valuable proposals have been put forward. China and Russia, on the one side, and the European Union, on the other, have taken the lead in this respect. While the former have submitted a proposal for a draft treaty on the demilitarization of outer space, known as the PPWT, the latter has issued a Draft Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities. Despite the differences between the two proposals, this paper proposes the development of a Chinese, Russian and European common approach aimed at preventing the weaponization of outer space. Although such a goal is undoubtedly challenging, some political and legal factors may enable such cooperation in the not-too-distant future.     

The PCA Rules for dispute settlement in outer space: A significant step forward

Outer space activities have evolved significantly. While they were previously the exclusive domain of a restricted number of states, now thanks to technological advances and the easing of governmental restrictions, space activities are carried out on a much larger scale and involve subjects of both a governmental and non-governmental nature. Furthermore, the commercial uses of outer space are making space business increasingly profitable and attractive to potential investors. As the economic value of outer space activities, as well as the number of space actors grows, it is nearly inevitable that international disputes related to the use of outer space will occur. Until recently, international space law contained little dedicated machinery to settle international outer space-related disputes. This absence significantly weakened the applicability and enforceability of space law and contributed to a climate of uncertainty. In order to address these issues, the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) adopted the Optional Rules for Arbitration of Disputes Relating to Outer Space Activities on 6 December 2011. The PCA Space Rules represent a significant development in the field of space law because they provide a voluntary and binding dispute settlement method accessible to all space actors and modeled on the specific legal and economic characteristics of space activities. This paper describes the genesis of the PCA Space Rules, assesses their content and innovative character, evaluates their possible implications for the settlement of outer space disputes, and argues that they should be positively received by the outer space community.     

关于发展商业小火箭的几点思考

近年来,小卫星已成为发展最迅猛、最具活力的商业航天领域,受到国际社会的广泛重视,其发射服务也成为商业航天创投的热点。全面梳理国外商业小火箭发展动态,在总结商业小火箭发展技术特点的基础上,通过分析和思考当前商业小火箭发展中面临的问题,如火箭能力与任务需求的匹配性、研发周期与方案设计的匹配性等,给出我国商业小火箭发展的建议,以期为其更好的发展提供新的思路。     

国外固体运载火箭主动力系统发展研究

统计了近10年来欧洲、日本、美国的固体运载火箭发射情况,系统分析了这些火箭使用的固体发动机性能参数,梳理了其发展脉络。这些国家和地区固体运载火箭主动力系统低成本的技术思路、模块化的发展方向、自动化的生产条件、完备的寿命评估体系,能够为我国运载火箭固体动力系统现阶段的使用、改进,以及未来的发展、规划提供参考和借鉴。     

Shaping a legal framework for the commercial use of outer space: recommendations and conclusions from Project 2001

Private and commercial activity in outer space still poses challenges to space law and policy. Within ‘Project 2001’—a legal research project by the University of Cologne's Institute of Air and Space Law and the German Aerospace Center (DLR)—six international expert working groups examined international and national laws, in order to identify gaps and, where necessary, propose improvements to the present legal framework for private space activities. The results were presented and discussed at an international colloquium in May 2001 in Cologne, Germany, where final conclusions have been drawn. This report presents a summary of the project's work and main conclusions, which are documented in full in a comprehensive book to be published in May 2002.     

Cost Engineering – The new paradigm for space launch vehicle design

The paper describes the basic definition and application of 'Cost Engineering' which means to design a vehicle system for minimum development cost and/or for minimum operations cost. This is important now and for the future since space transportation has become primarily a commercial business in contrast to the past where it has been mainly a subject of military power and national prestige. Several examples are presented for minimum-cost space launch vehicle configurations, such as increasing vehicle size and/or the use of less efficient rocket engines in order to reduce development and operations cost. Further a cost comparison is presented on single-stage (SSTO)-vehicles vs. two-stage launchers which shows that SSTOs have lower development and operations cost although they are larger, respectively have a higher lift-off mass than two-stage vehicles with the same performance. The design of a space tourism-dedicated launch vehicle is an extreme challenge for a cost-engineered vehicle design in order to achieve cost per seat not higher than $50,000. Finally an outlook is presented on the different options for manned Earth-to-Moon transportation modes and vehicles – another most important application of 'cost engineering', taking into account the large cost of such a future venture.     

天地往返可重复使用运载器再入飞行GNC系统关键技术

天地往返可重复使用运载器(RLV)在未来天战中将扮演重要角色。目前各军事大国围绕RLV的关键技术开展了广泛深入的研究。再入飞行是RLV飞行任务的重要阶段,而制导、导航与控制(GNC)系统则是RLV的核心系统之一,是RLV再入飞行的“脑系统”。本文分析了RLV在再入飞行阶段GNC系统的任务要求,明确其体系结构,分析GNC系统存在的问题,给出了深入研究GNC系统需要解决的关键技术和进一步研究的方向。     

The European Union draft Code of Conduct for outer space activities: An appraisal

The European Union draft Code of Conduct for outer space activities is one of the primary international initiatives, that are currently active, to enhance the safety, security and sustainability of outer space activities. Although the spirit underlying the instrument is commonly shared by space-faring countries, substantial disagreement exists among States as to some of its core provisions. This article proposes that the Code of Conduct should make a clear distinction between commercial activities and military activities, and adopt more balanced measures on the restriction of military activities in outer space.     

中国运载火箭测试发射模式发展思路研究

运载火箭的测试发射模式对火箭和发射场总体方案起着重要作用,目前各国常用的测发模式主要有一平两垂、三垂和三平模式。研究和总结国内外运载火箭测发模式及其特点,从任务适应性、环境适应性、可靠性和安全性、经济性这4个指标中细化出13项影响因素,在此基础上开展了3种测发模式影响因素对比分析。结合我国发射场环境地质条件和现有建设条件,提出一种运载火箭测发模式定量分析方法,完成了我国小型、中型、大型及重型运载火箭在现有4个发射场最优测发模式分析,为我国运载火箭未来测发模式发展提供重要参考。     

On strengthening the role of COPUOS: Maintaining outer space for peaceful uses

This article discusses the role of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS), and the importance of strengthening it in line with new developments in outer space. The author is particularly concerned about the growing threat of the militarization of space, and the issues of contamination, pollution and space debris. Existing international legal provisions are reviewed, and important provisions to maintain COPUOS's primary role are suggested.     

关于重型运载火箭若干问题的思考

重型运载火箭涉及众多关键技术,研制难度大,研制周期长。针对重型运载火箭研制过程中的几个问题进行了思考,包括动力类型选择、重型火箭模态试验、动力系统试车、测发模式以及产业基地布局与建设等方面,提出重型运载火箭后续研制过程中的技术难点以及应对措施设想。     

国内外航天发射技术现状与未来发展综述

航天发射技术是将卫星等有效载荷送入预定轨道的技术集成,现阶段主要由运载火箭技术、测发模式构建与选择、发射场支持和保障技术等组成,未来随着技术突破和运用创新,航天发射技术的主要构件及实现方式也会发生翻天覆地的变化。本文主要针对国内外航天发射技术的发展现状和趋势,比较全面地分析了现阶段航天发射技术的总体进展、运用特点,以及发展变革的主要突破方向和新技术运用构想等。     

GJB 1027A-2005《运载器、上面级、航天器试验要求》修订过程介绍

文章简要介绍了GJB 1027的发展过程;重点阐述了GJB 1027修订过程中的技术准备、编制原则、工作分工、征求意见等情况;尤其对修订的原则和使用对象、标准的适用范围、试验要求的覆盖范围、环境试验和可靠性试验的关系、试验剪裁、试验条件的制定、原型飞行等问题做了说明.     

From Earth's orbit to the outer planets and beyond: Psychological issues in space

Current planning for the first interplanetary expedition to Mars envisions a crew of 6 or 7 people and a mission duration of around 2.5 years. However, this time frame is much less than that expected on expeditions to the outer solar system, where total mission durations of 10 years or more are likely. Although future technological breakthroughs in propulsion systems and space vehicle construction may speed up transit times, for now we must realistically consider the psychological impact of missions lasting for one or more decades.Available information largely deals with on-orbit missions. In research that involved Mir and ISS missions lasting up to 7 months, our group and others have studied the effects of psychological and interpersonal issues on crewmembers and on the crew-ground relationship. We also studied the positive effects of being in space. However, human expeditions to the outer planets and beyond will introduce a number of new psychological and interpersonal stressors that have not been experienced before. There will be unprecedented levels of isolation and monotony, real-time communication with the Earth will not be possible, the crew will have to work autonomously, there will be great dependence on computers and other technical resources located on board, and the Earth will become an insignificant dot in space or will even disappear from view entirely.Strategies for dealing with psychological issues involving missions to the outer solar system and beyond will be considered and discussed, including those related to new technologies being considered for interstellar missions, such as traveling at a significant fraction of the speed of light, putting crewmembers in suspended animation, or creating giant self-contained generation ships of colonists who will not return to Earth.     

The role of the united nations in promoting international cooperation in peaceful uses of outer space

The Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) was established in 1959 by the United Nations General Assembly in order to review and foster international cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space and to consider legal issues arising from the exploration of outer space. Since its establishment, the Committee has addressed such issues as benefits from space activities, the definition and delimitation of outer space and the use of the geostationary orbit, implications of remote sensing, space sciences, space-based communications, navigation and meteorological systems, as well as use of nuclear power sources in outer space, space debris and spin-off benefits of space technology. At its session in 1996, a symposium on the ‘Utilization of micro- and small satellites for the expansion of low-cost space activities, taking into particular account the needs of developing countries’ was organized by COSPAR and IAF to complement discussions on this theme. It was noted at the symposium that the increasing number of small satellites, in particular the proposed introduction of multi-satellite ‘constellations’ at low orbits, would result in concentrations of satellite mass at certain regions of space around the Earth. Special provisions would be needed to minimize the probability of satellite breakups and collisions which might create more space debris and compromise the future of spaceflight.     

基于改进层次分析法对航天发射安全风险的评估

针对航天发射安全风险评估涉及因素较多和等级划分的模糊性,提出了航天发射安全风险递阶层次的评估指标体系,并利用正态分布密度函数对层次分析法确定的权重指标进行修正,使风险评估结果更加科学合理。可以为航天发射确定安全风险管控重点、优化防控措施提供重要技术支撑。     

光纤通道在火箭控制系统中的应用

提出了光纤通道在火箭控制系统中的应用设想。首先介绍了光纤通道点对点结构、仲裁环形结构、交换结构在火箭控制系统的应用,然后针对目前火箭控制系统的特点,提出了一种光纤通道和其他航天数字总线混合的拓扑结构形式。这种形式可以适应火箭控制系统不同级段不同速率的要求,也可以满足目前总线系统过渡的需要。     

综合布线在航天靶场测发系统中的应用浅探

针对靶场测试电缆存在的浪费严重、管理困难等现状，提出了应用综合布线系统的设想。简要介绍了结构化布线系统的定义、组成，论述了靶场测试电缆采用结构化布线系统的优势，并给出了电缆结构化布线系统的初步组成设想。最后论述了靶场在经布线时应注意的几个问题。     

航天发射特征事件综合和弹道融合策略优化研究与应用

特征事件综合和弹道融合是航天发射过程中最为重要的一项工作,通过特征事件发生时间和火箭飞行弹道可直观地反映出运载火箭的飞行状态。因此,为了进一步提高特征事件综合和弹道融合效果,基于遥、外测量信息,分别对参与特征事件综合和弹道融合的信息源进行分类及其影响因素进行分析,并提出了相应的信息融合策略。通过采用优化的融合策略,可进一步提高特征事件时间解算的准确性和实效性,提升弹道融合的效果,满足航天发射飞行态势显示和安全控制的任务需求。     

容错箭载计算机的硬件故障注入方法研究

容错机制和设计方案的正确性验证是容错箭载计算机研制的重要环节,验证方法有理论计算、软件模拟和硬件模拟等3种。硬件故障注入法采用人为引入故障方法可加速系统的失效,并通过观察系统在出现故障之后的行为反应对容错计算机系统的容错能力进行评价,更适合工程应用。本文研究采用硬件故障注入方法和特定容错测试仪,对容错箭载计算机的容错机制和设计方案进行了正确性验证,为容错箭载计算机的工程应用奠定技术基础。