航天器空间辐射防护材料与防护结构

电子、质子、重离子、光子等空间辐射环境可在航天器材料或元器件中产生单粒子效应、总剂量效应、表面充放电效应、位移损伤效应、内带电效应等,因此,需要对航天器进行空间辐射防护。本文首先介绍空间辐射防护原理和防护有效性,进而从材料、分系统(或部组件)、航天器3个不同维度,对质量屏蔽防护材料、静电防护材料、抗辐射功能材料、航天器局部辐射防护结构和整星辐射防护结构进行了探讨,最后对未来发展的方向进行了讨论。     

舱外航天服的轨道空间外热流计算方法

分析了舱外航天服在轨道空间环境的辐射换热热流。采用蒙特卡罗(MonteCarlo)法,计算了航天服及飞船处于各种相对位置时,航天服对飞船的红外辐射角系数;航天服相对于地球位于各种位置时,航天服对地球的红外辐射角系数;在一定太阳照射方向下,飞船及地球对航天服的太阳反射角系数。与文献数据比较,证明此方法计算舱外航天服空间外热流适用性强,结果准确、可靠,能满足工程使用要求。     

Space Weather and the Ground-Level Solar Proton Events of the 23rd Solar Cycle

Solar proton events can adversely affect space and ground-based systems. Ground-level events are a subset of solar proton events that have a harder spectrum than average solar proton events and are detectable on Earth’s surface by cosmic radiation ionization chambers, muon detectors, and neutron monitors. This paper summarizes the space weather effects associated with ground-level solar proton events during the 23rd solar cycle. These effects include communication and navigation systems, spacecraft electronics and operations, space power systems, manned space missions, and commercial aircraft operations. The major effect of ground-level events that affect manned spacecraft operations is increased radiation exposure. The primary effect on commercial aircraft operations is the loss of high frequency communication and, at extreme polar latitudes, an increase in the radiation exposure above that experienced from the background galactic cosmic radiation. Calculations of the maximum potential aircraft polar route exposure for each ground-level event of the 23rd solar cycle are presented. The space weather effects in October and November 2003 are highlighted together with on-going efforts to utilize cosmic ray neutron monitors to predict high energy solar proton events, thus providing an alert so that system operators can possibly make adjustments to vulnerable spacecraft operations and polar aircraft routes.     

Helium, Oxygen, Proton, and Electron (HOPE) Mass Spectrometer for the Radiation Belt Storm Probes Mission

The HOPE mass spectrometer of the Radiation Belt Storm Probes (RBSP) mission (renamed the Van Allen Probes) is designed to measure the in situ plasma ion and electron fluxes over 4π sr at each RBSP spacecraft within the terrestrial radiation belts. The scientific goal is to understand the underlying physical processes that govern the radiation belt structure and dynamics. Spectral measurements for both ions and electrons are acquired over 1 eV to 50 keV in 36 log-spaced steps at an energy resolution ΔE _FWHM/E≈15 %. The dominant ion species (H⁺, He⁺, and O⁺) of the magnetosphere are identified using foil-based time-of-flight (TOF) mass spectrometry with channel electron multiplier (CEM) detectors. Angular measurements are derived using five polar pixels coplanar with the spacecraft spin axis, and up to 16 azimuthal bins are acquired for each polar pixel over time as the spacecraft spins. Ion and electron measurements are acquired on alternate spacecraft spins. HOPE incorporates several new methods to minimize and monitor the background induced by penetrating particles in the harsh environment of the radiation belts. The absolute efficiencies of detection are continuously monitored, enabling precise, quantitative measurements of electron and ion fluxes and ion species abundances throughout the mission. We describe the engineering approaches for plasma measurements in the radiation belts and present summaries of HOPE measurement strategy and performance.     

无线电干涉测量在深空航天器导航中的应用

介绍了用于确定航天器相对于自然射电源或另一颗航天器角位置的几种无线电干涉测量技术及其在深空探测航天器导航中的应用。差分干涉测量通过对传播时延进行差分消除了大量公共误差,可以达到很高的测角精度,对深空航天器的导航具有重要意义。针对几种干涉测量技术中包含的相位整周模糊这一关键问题,介绍了当前国际上的几种解决方法。系统地分析了影响干涉测量的主要误差源,并对这一领域未来的发展趋势进行了展望。     

航天器在轨全过程表面辐射热计算数值仿真研究

对在轨航天器表面辐射热计算进行了全过程数值仿真研究。航天器结构较复杂,针对不同结构进行区域分解,对几何模型进行相应的规则化,同时采用结构化网格和非结构化网格建立通用的计算网格自生成技术。仿真过程重点考虑了任意曲面的网格自动划分和任意形状交界面的数据传递,兼顾几何结构、物理过程、计算精度和计算速度。将有限元法和能束均匀分布法相结合计算角系数和辐射传递系数。将积分法和能束均匀分布法相结合计算外热流。由于在轨航天器表面多用多层隔热组件包裹,针对这部分结构采用节点网络法和控制容积法计算其表面温度,而未被包裹的结构采用有限元法计算其表面温度。对具有辐射换热关系的非连通区域温度场的有限元计算进行了分析和公式推导。最后,用Microsoft VC++6.0编程设计开发了近地轨道航天器表面辐射热计算仿真软件。     

Science Objectives and Rationale for the Radiation Belt Storm Probes Mission

The NASA Radiation Belt Storm Probes (RBSP) mission addresses how populations of high energy charged particles are created, vary, and evolve in space environments, and specifically within Earth’s magnetically trapped radiation belts. RBSP, with a nominal launch date of August 2012, comprises two spacecraft making in situ measurements for at least 2 years in nearly the same highly elliptical, low inclination orbits (1.1×5.8 RE, 10^°). The orbits are slightly different so that 1 spacecraft laps the other spacecraft about every 2.5 months, allowing separation of spatial from temporal effects over spatial scales ranging from ～0.1 to 5 RE. The uniquely comprehensive suite of instruments, identical on the two spacecraft, measures all of the particle (electrons, ions, ion composition), fields (E and B), and wave distributions (d E and d B) that are needed to resolve the most critical science questions. Here we summarize the high level science objectives for the RBSP mission, provide historical background on studies of Earth and planetary radiation belts, present examples of the most compelling scientific mysteries of the radiation belts, present the mission design of the RBSP mission that targets these mysteries and objectives, present the observation and measurement requirements for the mission, and introduce the instrumentation that will deliver these measurements. This paper references and is followed by a number of companion papers that describe the details of the RBSP mission, spacecraft, and instruments.     

航天用FR4 材料的本征电导率测试

介质材料电导率是影响卫星充电过程的重要材料参数,它决定着航天器上电荷的分布状态以及电流平 衡建立的快慢。常规的电导率测量方法完全不考虑空间真实带电环境,其测试结果用于卫星带电防护设计将会产生 较大的误差。本文建立了用传统三电极法和电荷衰减法测试介质材料本征电导率的测试系统,对卫星常用的FR4 材 料进行了测试,测试结果与国外的结果相近。     

2001 Mars Odyssey Mission Summary

The 2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft, now in orbit at Mars, will observe the Martian surface at infrared and visible wavelengths to determine surface mineralogy and morphology, acquire global gamma ray and neutron observations for a full Martian year, and study the Mars radiation environment from orbit. The science objectives of this mission are to: (1) globally map the elemental composition of the surface, (2) determine the abundance of hydrogen in the shallow subsurface, (3) acquire high spatial and spectral resolution images of the surface mineralogy, (4) provide information on the morphology of the surface, and (5) characterize the Martian near-space radiation environment as related to radiation-induced risk to human explorers. To accomplish these objectives, the 2001 Mars Odyssey science payload includes a Gamma Ray Spectrometer (GRS), a multi-spectral Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS), and a radiation detector, the Martian Radiation Environment Experiment (MARIE). THEMIS and MARIE are mounted on the spacecraft with THEMIS pointed at nadir. GRS is a suite of three instruments: a Gamma Subsystem (GSS), a Neutron Spectrometer (NS) and a High-Energy Neutron Detector (HEND). The HEND and NS instruments are mounted on the spacecraft body while the GSS is on a 6-m boom. Some science data were collected during the cruise and aerobraking phases of the mission before the prime mission started. THEMIS acquired infrared and visible images of the Earth-Moon system and of the southern hemisphere of Mars. MARIE monitored the radiation environment during cruise. The GRS collected calibration data during cruise and aerobraking. Early GRS observations in Mars orbit indicated a hydrogen-rich layer in the upper meter of the subsurface in the Southern Hemisphere. Also, atmospheric densities, scale heights, temperatures, and pressures were observed by spacecraft accelerometers during aerobraking as the spacecraft skimmed the upper portions of the Martian atmosphere. This provided the first in-situ evidence of winter polar warming in the Mars upper atmosphere. The prime mission for 2001 Mars Odyssey began in February 2002 and will continue until August 2004. During this prime mission, the 2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft will also provide radio relays for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and European landers in early 2004. Science data from 2001 Mars Odyssey instruments will be provided to the science community via NASA’s Planetary Data System (PDS). The first PDS release of Odyssey data was in October 2002; subsequent releases occur every 3 months.     

基于应力强度干涉理论和薄弱环节分析的光子晶体光纤陀螺寿命评估

在空间飞行环境中,航天器承受着各种环境的作用,而每种环境因素都在一定程度上影响着航天器的工作寿命。光子晶体光纤是一种新型光纤,其比传统保偏光纤更耐辐照,是长寿命光纤陀螺(Fiber Optical Gyroscope,FOG)的首选,可以满足长寿命卫星的应用需要。将光纤陀螺特征寿命定义为强度,将热、辐照和振动等环境因素定义为应力,运用应力强度分析理论,采用最坏情况分析方法,分析了在常见应力联合作用下光纤陀螺的薄弱环节,评估了光纤陀螺的在轨工作寿命,验证了光子晶体光纤陀螺在某长寿命通信卫星上的适应性。分析结果表明,热和辐照是影响光子晶体光纤陀螺的重要因素。研究结论可用于有针对性地进行改进设计,为长寿命高可靠卫星提供技术支撑,具有显著意义。     

DF Vectoring: Application to Stationary Synchronous Satellites

Several methods of using an earth-based radio reference signal to determine the three-axis attitude of a synchronous satellite, and two types of spacecraft electronic systems (amplitude measurement and phase measurement), which obtain attitude and pointing information from the radio reference signal for orientating the spacecraft and for directing large-aperture antennas aboard the spacecraft are described. The earth-based radio reference signal also enables the electronic systems to determine angles to other ground stations with respect to fixed (reference) stations on the earth. These attitude- and angle-determining techniques are applicable to communications satellites, navigational satellites, and intersatellite data relay systems.     

航天材料空间环境效应损伤机制及关联性研究

基于航天材料在轨将遭遇多种空间环境的作用且不同空间环境对航天材料的损伤存在一定的关联性,本文首先对航天材料的空间环境及效应进行了介绍,接着对真空、温度、微重力、等离子体、粒子辐射、太阳电磁辐射、空间大气、空间碎片及微流星体、空间污染、空间动力学、腐蚀及空间生物等环境对航天材料的损伤机制及不同损伤机制之间的关联性进行了研究,最后对需要进一步研究和关注的方向进行了讨论并给出了发展建议。     

Space-system timekeeping in the presence of solar flares

It has become increasingly clear that the enhanced space radiation environment associated with solar activity can play havoc with satellite systems. An important special case of this problem concerns precise timekeeping among orbiting communications satellites, where the loss of synchronization can mean the loss of communications. Here, we discuss one satellite system's solution to this problem, where radiation-sensitive spacecraft crystal oscillators are "slaved" to radiation-insensitive spacecraft atomic clocks.     

Spacecraft Application of Expert Systems

Artificial Intelligence (AI) will play a major role in future spacecraft operation. Because the technology has not matured, knowledge-based systems will be incorporated in an evolutionary manner, with increasing responsibility as their performance is proven. Internal research at Boeing Aerospace Company has demonstrated that AI software development techniques, knowledge-based systems in particular, can be used to provide limited spacecraft subsystem automation. This capability represents a first step toward an evolutionary path to spacecraft automation. A likely progression will proceed to integrated subsystem control, automated planning and scheduling, plan execution, anomoly handling, and eventually to autonomous spacecraft operation. Although this paper is written in the context of Space Station the ideas and techniques identified should be easily transferable to spacecraft automation in general.     

基于STL文件和有限元法的在轨航天器关键部件热计算

针对STL(stereo lithography)文件在传递复杂几何实体模型信息方面具有精度高的特点,提出了一种基于STL文件计算复杂结构角系数和外热流的方法.根据单元和节点的拓扑关系识别六面体网格边界单元并进行辐射换热计算.详细阐述了基于STL文件和有限元法进行复杂结构的角系数和外热流的计算方法.研究了导热-辐射耦合计算的有限元方法.最后利用有限元法计算航天器关键部件在轨的三维瞬态温度场.      

Dual-Spin Spacecraft Nutation Control Using Articulated Payloads

A technique is presented for achieving active control of nutation on a dual-spin spacecraft with an articulated payload through use of the payload's control system. Using the Orbiting Solar Observatory (OSO)-8 as an illustration, the closed-form solution to the nutation/control system dynamic interaction is presented. Control system design criteria are developed which establish the basic stability of the interaction. Design procedures are described to achieve the most effective nutation damping. Limitations on the amount of damping which can be achieved are characterized as functions of spacecraft and payload mass properties and servodesign parameters. The design techniques presented are verified through a series of on-orbit tests recently conducted on the OSO-8 spacecraft.     

Interplanetary type III radio bursts observed simultaneously by ICE

We analyze two solar type III radio bursts that were observed simultaneously by the ICE and Ulysses spacecraft. Both bursts originated behind the solar limb as viewed from either spacecraft. At the time of these events, ICE was in the ecliptic plane at 1 AU and Ulysses was 35° south of the ecliptic plane at 4 AU. For one event on 931117, the ratios of the peak flux densities measured at each spacecraft, at each observing frequency, were consistent with the most probable source locations relative to ICE and Ulysses. The second event on 931004 was a complex burst consisting of two distinct components at high frequencies. At low frequencies, the intensity of the first component decreased rapidly at each spacecraft. The second component, however, dominated the low frequency emission observed at Ulysses but not at ICE. These differences in the observed radiation must be related to the different viewing geometries of the two spacecraft. The measured onset times as a function of observing frequency were consistent with a constant exciter speed through the interplanetary medium and suggest that there are significant propagation delays, especially for the radiation propagating within the ecliptic plane.     

航天器返回地球的气动特性综述

航天器返回地球的飞行过程中,气动特性是实现将宇宙飞行速度减到落地前速度、保证再入飞行得到有效控制以及再入防热安全可靠的关键因素。针对简单旋成体气动外形、半弹道式再入控制、烧蚀防热类返回航天器,综述了返回地球过程中变化的空气流域特性、航天器周围的气体绕流环境、空气与航天器作用产生的动力学与热效应等。系统地给出了该类航天器的再入气动特性参数与飞行性能的共性规律,包括:气动阻力与再入减速、气动升力与再入轨迹控制、配平攻角与飞行稳定性、气动加热与防热,以及再入过程中不同气动特性航天器、气象条件变化等对再入飞行性能的影响规律。为航天器开展返回飞行过程的跨流域气动性能工程研制提供设计参考。     

A Digital System for Accurate Time Sector Division of a Spin-Stabilized Vehicle

This paper describes an aspect system flown on PIONEERS VI and VII2 which incorporates an extremely accurate adaptive digital computer in order to define rigorously equal time intervals which are submultiples of the spacecraft spin period. The several submultiples which compose the complete spin period exhibit equality to within 2.5 parts in 105. This system has potential applications in other experiments involving the study of the angular dependence of cosmic radiation and other physical phenomena being measured by a single directional detector mounted on spin-stabilized spacecraft. Included here are the scientific goals for this experiment, system restraints, and the generalized system operation. Some details on specific logic and hardware implementation for the Pioneer experiments are included along with in-flight performance evaluation of the system aboard PIONEER VI.     

The Juno Magnetic Field Investigation

The Juno Magnetic Field investigation (MAG) characterizes Jupiter’s planetary magnetic field and magnetosphere, providing the first globally distributed and proximate measurements of the magnetic field of Jupiter. The magnetic field instrumentation consists of two independent magnetometer sensor suites, each consisting of a tri-axial Fluxgate Magnetometer (FGM) sensor and a pair of co-located imaging sensors mounted on an ultra-stable optical bench. The imaging system sensors are part of a subsystem that provides accurate attitude information (to ～20 arcsec on a spinning spacecraft) near the point of measurement of the magnetic field. The two sensor suites are accommodated at 10 and 12 m from the body of the spacecraft on a 4 m long magnetometer boom affixed to the outer end of one of ’s three solar array assemblies. The magnetometer sensors are controlled by independent and functionally identical electronics boards within the magnetometer electronics package mounted inside Juno’s massive radiation shielded vault. The imaging sensors are controlled by a fully hardware redundant electronics package also mounted within the radiation vault. Each magnetometer sensor measures the vector magnetic field with 100 ppm absolute vector accuracy over a wide dynamic range (to 16 Gauss = \(1.6 \times 10^{6}\mbox{ nT}\) per axis) with a resolution of ～0.05 nT in the most sensitive dynamic range (±1600 nT per axis). Both magnetometers sample the magnetic field simultaneously at an intrinsic sample rate of 64 vector samples per second. The magnetic field instrumentation may be reconfigured in flight to meet unanticipated needs and is fully hardware redundant. The attitude determination system compares images with an on-board star catalog to provide attitude solutions (quaternions) at a rate of up to 4 solutions per second, and may be configured to acquire images of selected targets for science and engineering analysis. The system tracks and catalogs objects that pass through the imager field of view and also provides a continuous record of radiation exposure. A spacecraft magnetic control program was implemented to provide a magnetically clean environment for the magnetic sensors, and residual spacecraft fields and/or sensor offsets are monitored in flight taking advantage of Juno’s spin (nominally 2 rpm) to separate environmental fields from those that rotate with the spacecraft.