Earth observation data pricing policy

Pricing policy for Earth observation data continues to be a problem for both supplier organizations and user organizations: there are incompatible or conflicting pricing policies used by different organizations in the Earth observation sector. This paper analyses the issues in Earth observation data pricing in two ways. First, it analyses the policy foundations which underlie Earth observation data pricing, such as return on investment, the basis of pricing policy and access conditions. Second, it presents five policy options for the pricing of Earth observation data, namely free data, marginal cost price, market driven price, two tier pricing and rebalancing of government funding. The paper concludes with an analysis of the forces acting on Earth observation data pricing policy.     

The earth observation market: industrial dynamics and their impact on data policy

This paper examines the relationship between public sector objectives in the Earth observation data market and the economic interests of Earth observation data procedures. The Earth observation data market is treated as a particular example of an information market and the economic incentives created by the cultural characteristics of the market, particularly in Europe, are considered to assess the implications for data pricing policies. The analysis focuses upon implications of the vertical and horizontal linkages in the Earth observation industrial participation chain which includes space segment suppliers, space agencies and operators, data intermediaries and end users. A rebalancing of administrative and market decisions is proposed that would result in a shift in the allocation of public resources from space agencies and data intermediaries to data users whose activities are deemed to be in the widest public interest.     

Global Monitoring for Environment and Security: data policy considerations

Data policy is an important element of the initiative on Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES), which aims to establish a European capacity for the provision and use of operational information for monitoring and management of the environment and civil security by 2008. This paper documents the data policies of the variety of information providers likely to be involved in GMES, identifies the obstacles and draws conclusions on ways to improve data policy coherence. It addresses the main policy issues associated with Earth observation data, as well as with other types of environmental data.     

Earth Observation Data Policy and Europe

This paper summarizes the final report of the Earth Observation and Data Policy and Europe (EOPOLE) fixed-term project, set up to review national research on the subject and to make recommendations for its improvement within an EU-wide context. It identifies the major issues to have emerged from the areas of user perspectives, pricing policy, the impact of new technologies on data policy, archiving policy and legal regulation and suggests ways of dealing with them. These include orienting data policies towards specific uses rather than users themselves; presenting a common European voice over the trade and exchange of geo-information via new communication means; and establishing a European-scale think-tank able to provide independent assessments of the economic, legal and international relations questions affecting Earth observation.     

New technologies and data integration

The fourth workshop of the Earth Observation Data Policy and Europe (EOPOLE) project was held in Brussels, Belgium, 18–20 October 1999 at the offices of the European Commission DG Research, with Yves Reginster of Gere SA, Luxembourg, as guest speaker. The purpose of the workshop was to discuss the data policy issues raised by new technologies and by integrating Earth observation (EO) data with non-EO data. They included risks and reliability of output products, transfer of experience with new projects and intellectual property rights.     

Progress in multilateral Earth observation cooperation: CEOS, IGOS and the ad hoc Group on Earth Observations

The Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS) coordinates international civil space-borne missions designed to observe and study planet Earth. With over 100 Earth observation satellites expected to be launched during the next 10 years, it is clear that collaborative opportunities have not been fully maximized. In 2003 CEOS has been focusing on articulating a more comprehensive satellite data utilization approach and in following up on its significant involvement in the World Summit on Sustainable Development. The CEOS Chair also serves as Co-Chair of the Integrated Global Observing Strategy (IGOS) Partnership, which seeks to reduce observation gaps and unnecessary overlaps and to harmonize and integrate common interests of space-based and in situ systems. IGOS focused in 2003 on development of a number of themes, including Carbon Cycle, Water Cycle and GeoHazards. The IGOS Ocean Theme is now in its implementation phase. NOAA, while chairing CEOS and co-chairing IGOS, has also been actively involved in organizing and hosting a ministerial-level Earth Observation Summit with a follow-on Group on Earth Observations (GEO) charged with developing the framework for a comprehensive global Earth observation system(s). All these activities demonstrate the commitment to developing more coherent and sustained Earth observation strategies for the good of the planet.     

Remote sensing in the information age

A large percentage of the public today perceives the majority of applications of Earth observation data from satellite and aircraft altitudes to be focused on the understanding and management of the renewable and non-renewable resources of the Earth and its environment. Originally conceived as a tool for gathering intelligence information, remote sensing has just fully emerged from its military womb to the public domain. Advances in the technology, a variety of indirect benefits that could be derived from space exploration, commercialization of remote sensing and the drive of the value-added companies - all of these hold promise for new opportunities for many other novel applications of Earth observation data and related information. In the advent of the more advanced, user-friendly, cost effective, and problem solving operations being championed by the private sector, particularly in the industrialized countries, it appears that the commercial future for remote sensing programmes and related information generated in the process is promising. This paper examines how the information age is influencing the metamorphosis of remote sensing technology particularly through international legal instruments and converging technologies. In spite of the progress attained to-date, of international concern is possible radio frequency interference between remote sensing satellite and communication satellite services. There is also a major knowledge gap between the providers of raw remote sensing data and the user community, particularly those interested in the new high-level information. A resolution of these issues will enhance the contributions of remote sensing to the information economy.     

Space assets for demining assistance

Populations emerging from armed conflicts often remain threatened by landmines and explosive remnants of war. The international mine action community is concerned with the relief of this threat. The Space Assets for Demining Assistance (SADA) undertaking is a set of activities that aim at developing new services to improve the socio-economic impact of mine action activities, primarily focused on the release of land thought to be contaminated, a process described as land release. SADA was originally initiated by the International Astronautical Federation (IAF). It has been implemented under the Integrated Applications Promotion (IAP) program of the European Space Agency (ESA).Land release in mine action is the process whereby the demining community identifies, surveys and prioritizes suspected hazardous areas for more detailed investigation, which eventually results in the clearance of landmines and other explosives, thereby releasing land to the local population. SADA has a broad scope, covering activities, such as planning (risk and impact analysis, prioritization, and resource management), field operations and reporting.SADA services are developed in two phases: feasibility studies followed by demonstration projects. Three parallel feasibility studies have been performed. They aimed at defining an integrated set of space enabled services to support the land release process in mine action, and at analyzing their added value, viability and sustainability. The needs of the mine action sector have been assessed and the potential contribution of space assets has been identified. Support services have been formulated. To test their fieldability, proofs of concept involving mine action end users in various operational field settings have been performed by each of the study teams. The economic viability has also been assessed.Whenever relevant and cost-effective, SADA aims at integrating Earth observation data, GNSS navigation and SatCom technologies with existing mine action tools and procedures, as well as with novel aerial survey technologies. Such conformity with existing user processes, as well as available budgets and appropriateness of technology based solutions given the field level operational setting are important conditions for success. The studies have demonstrated that Earth observation data, satellite navigation solutions and in some cases, satellite communication, indeed can provide added value to mine action activities if properly tailored based on close user interaction and provided through a suitable channel. Such added value for example includes easy and sustained access to Earth observation data for general purpose mapping, land use assessment for post-release progress reporting, and multi-source data fusion algorithms to help quantify risks and socio-economic impact for prioritization and planning purposes. The environment and boundaries of a hazardous area can also be better specified to support the land release process including detailed survey and clearance operations. Satellite communication can help to provide relevant data to remote locations, but is not regarded as strongly user driven. Finally, satellite navigation can support more precise non-technical surveys, as well as aerial observation with small planes or hand-launched UAV's.To ensure the activity is genuinely user driven, the Geneva International Center for Humanitarian Demining (GICHD) plays an important role as ESA’s external advisor. ESA is furthermore supported by a representative field operator, the Swiss Foundation of Mine Action (FSD), providing ESA with a direct connection to the field level end users. Specifically FSD has provided a shared user needs baseline to the three study teams. To ensure solutions meet with end user requirements, the study teams themselves include mine action representatives and have interacted closely with their pre-existing and newly established contacts within the mine action community.     

Earth observation and the public good

The term ‘public good’ is often used in satellite Earth observation to indicate that Earth observation data are of value or interest to the public. In fact, the term ‘public good’ has a more specific meaning, originating in the discipline of Economics, which carries with it a set of assumptions and implications about how markets operate. In this context a public good has two main characteristics: non-rivalry and non-excludability. In their most common digital format, Earth observation data can appear to be both non-rivalrous and non-excludable. However, it is not the digital medium itself which controls the ‘publicness’ of a good but the conditions of access to that good. This paper explores the meaning of the concept of public goods in an Earth observation context by, first, examining public good theory and related concepts of categories of goods and, second, applying the concepts to nine Earth observation missions, programmes and data.     

From initial ideas to a European plan: GMES as an exemplar of European space strategy

Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES) is an idea which originated during a meeting in Baveno, Italy, in May 1998, which generated a call for Europe to get its act together in the field of environmental monitoring from space, to define a well articulated strategy in this area and to build upon its excellent scientific research community, its proven technical prowess in Earth observation from space and its nascent political will to express its objectives in international fora related to climate change and other global environment topics. While Europe was already active in the most advanced areas of global monitoring, its rather uncoordinated efforts (even within the European Commission) lacked visibility and did not appear to fit into a clearly established strategy. The ‘Baveno initiative’ was an attempt to remedy this situation and find a place within a developing ‘European Strategy for Space’, which requires ESA and the European Union to work more closely together. GMES was extended to include the ‘security’ (in its wider sense) aspects of global monitoring, a move that produced a number of questions and misunderstandings, but which allowed many in Europe to realize that monitoring the activities of the Earth’ land masses, oceans and atmosphere do include a security dimension. GMES will eventually incorporate an implementation plan which will call upon various monitoring techniques, ambitious modelling projects and connections with society's more urgent requirements with respect to environmental protection and prevention or reduction of risks related to natural hazards. This will entail significant efforts to inform the user communities and to convince them of the relevance and usefulness of this initiative. It will also provide a sound basis for the European contribution to the new initiative for improved coordination of strategies and systems for Earth observations called for by the July 2003 Earth Observation Summit.     

The use of remote sensing to support the application of multilateral environmental agreements

There is a growing realisation of the increasingly varied and interesting possibilities for the use of Earth observation data to ensure compliance with international obligations generally, and treaty obligations in particular. Most examinations of the application of Earth observation data to monitoring states’ compliance with international obligations focus on the environmental sector. This paper proposes the use of remote sensing satellites for the support of multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs), especially land monitoring MEAs such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) and the Kyoto Protocol (1997). It discusses the uses of remote sensing for treaty implementation or enforcement in general, and the admissability of satellite imagery as legal proof, before examining how Earth observation-derived data could be of benefit to specific MEAs. As sensors become increasingly sophisticated the use of remote sensing in this area should grow but it needs to be supported by its more widespread legal recognition as proof.     

European space research in support of international partnership

The envisaged future space research programmes, whether in the field of space exploration or Earth observation are becoming more and more technically complicated and so costly that a single nation can hardly afford to realize them. Major non-European space-faring nations, China and India will progressively play an important role besides US, Russia and Japan. The Space Advisory Group of the European Commission recommended that the European Commission supports within Horizon 2020 a comprehensive Robotic Mars-Exploration Programme under European leadership that should become an essential element of a coordinated international space research programme. The International Space Station (ISS) experience shows that cooperative space programmes build links between industries and laboratories from around the world, which then further develop in non-space related activities, with positive impact on the economy and scientific research. Strategies need to be developed to mitigate the gradual increasing risks incurred by climate change. In order to lower their entry barrier to engage in space emerging and developing space nations need to be included in cooperative space programmes. We present the recommendations of the Space Advisory Group of the European Commission concerning Europe's participation to global space endeavours.     

Earth Observation Data Policy and Europe (EOPOLE)

A project has recently begun to review, coordinate and help formulate European Earth observation data policy. The project held its first of several workshops at University College London, 11–13 January 1999. The purpose of the first workshop was to conduct a review of the state-of-the-art in Earth observation data policy in Europe. All the EOPOLE team members gave presentations, and an extended discussion was held with Roy Gibson, former Director General of the European Space Agency, as the invited expert. This report describes the raison d'etre of EOPOLE and presents the main conclusions of the first workshop.     

Archives for Earth observation data

The fifth workshop of the EOPOLE project¹ was held in Seville, Spain, 17–19 January 2000, with the purpose of forming an opinion on European Earth observation data archiving policy. This report discusses the growing size and importance of EO data archives and presents the main conclusions of the workshop. The case is made for the establishment of a European centre for data archiving and users are urged to become more involved in archiving policy.     

Threats, risks, and sustainability—Answers from space: Results of the ESPI conference

An initiative was undertaken by the European Space Policy Institute (ESPI) on 10–11 December 2007 to shed new light on the various threats to long-term sustainability on Earth using an interdisciplinary approach. The main objective of this conference was to analyse how space could be a tool for prediction, management or mitigation of threats and risks in six sectors (environment, security, mobility, knowledge, resources and energy) defined by ESPI as the main areas for sustainability. For each sector, one (non-space) speaker from a think-tank covering the respective sector and two speakers from the space sector exchanged views and ideas in order to identify common needs for action to ensure sustainability in the field. Such a dialogue between sector specialist and space experts permitted a detailed examination of the way space has become a crucial tool in solving a variety of today's problems. It also identified areas where space applications could better respond to sectoral and future challenges.     

UNESCO, conference discusses remote sensing in Europe

This is an edited version of the Executive Summary of Euroconsult's latest report, covering the development, current status and potential of Europe's Earth observation data processing and interpretation services. The bulk of the report is based on a survey-carried out in conjuction with DG XII of the European Commission - of 28 companies and organizations, about one-third of the total involved in Earth observations in Europe. Full copies of the Executive Summary are available from EC DGXII-H-5, 75 rue Montoyer, Brussels, Belgium.     

Supplying Earth-observation data from space

This article uses the context of the Earth Observing System (EOS) to address two sets of economic and policy issues that have been fundamental to the rancorous debate over EOS, and which promise to figure prominently in future discussion of other US space activities. The first set of issues concerns whether the purported cost savings from larger-scale spacecraft and multiple-sensor coordination are substantial enough to justify large-scale approaches, and the differences in the risk associated with the large-scale projects compared to smaller-scale alternatives. The second set of issues concerns the institutional organization of projects, namely whether a project's technology should be an almost exclusively governmentally funded, owned and operated activity as is now the case, or whether there could be a larger role than now envisaged for the commercial space sector.     

Towards a coherent remote sensing data policy

Access to space-based remote sensing data is critical for Earth science and the study of global change. This article summarizes a variety of US government Earth science data policies and problems. The authors examine current efforts to develop data policies for the next generation of US remote sensing programmes, noting likely problems based on past experiences. They argue that the goal of US Earth science data policy should be to provide the widest possible dissemination of data. Setting such a goal permits the development of a simple, coherent data policy that serves scientific, commercial and US government interests.     

Increasing the use of Earth observations in developing countries

Earth observation (EO) data have numerous applications that would improve the still dire conditions of life in parts of the developing world. The under-utilization of such information is a result of three perceived inadequacies–inadequate local capacity, inadequate awareness of potential users and inadequate financing. Arguing that none of these problems is as significant as made out, this viewpoint highlights some of the viable EO applications that could be (and at last in some cases are being) used in developing countries and urges the EO community to be more proactive in disseminating information and in matching projects with areas of need.     

The role of the European parliament in the development of a European union space policy

This paper investigates the role of the European Parliament (EP) in the development of the space policy of the EU (EUSP), an important policy area that has been neglected in the political science and EU studies literature. EUSP is the offspring of the European space policy which started as a purely intergovernmental affair, but gradually acquired a supranational dimension. Although the EP did little to initiate this process, it always supported the involvement of the EU in space, and it used both its formal and informal powers to affect and promote its development. Under the consultation procedure the EP managed to become a conditional agenda setter, and under co-decision an influential legislation maker. The changes it introduced in the European global navigation satellite and Earth observation programmes relate not only to the inter-institutional balance and its controlling powers, but to a series of substantive issues also. Consequently, the activism of the EP has played an important part in the development of the EUSP, even if it was not the main force behind its inception.