Olivine-respiring bacteria isolated from the rock-ice interface in a lava-tube cave, a Mars analog environment

The boundary between ice and basalt on Earth is an analogue for some near-surface environments of Mars. We investigated neutrophilic iron-oxidizing microorganisms from the basalt-ice interface in a lava tube from the Oregon Cascades with perennial ice. One of the isolates (Pseudomonas sp. HerB) can use ferrous iron Fe(II) from the igneous mineral olivine as an electron donor and O(2) as an electron acceptor. The optimum growth temperature is ～12-14°C, but growth also occurs at 5°C. Bicarbonate is a facultative source of carbon. Growth of Pseudomonas sp. HerB as a chemolithotrophic iron oxidizer with olivine as the source of energy is favored in low O(2) conditions (e.g., 1.6% O(2)). Most likely, microbial oxidation of olivine near pH 7 requires low O(2) to offset the abiotic oxidation of iron. The metabolic capabilities of this bacterium would allow it to live in near-surface, icy, volcanic environments of Mars in the present or recent geological past and make this type of physiology a prime candidate in the search for life on Mars.     

Precise tracking and orbit determination of ERS-1

The application of the ERS-1 altimeter for investigating the global ocean circulation requires that the satellite's orbit, and in particular the radial position component, are known very accurately. Results are presented of orbit determination error analyses for 15 min, 2 revolution and 3 day data arcs, applying laser, TRANET and PRARE tracking systems. For the center part of the short arc radial orbit errors of less than 10 cm are achievable. For the multirevolution arcs the global rms radial error is found to be about 0.6 m and is dominated by the gravity field model error contribution. Finally, the feasibility of applying the altimeter as a tracking device is discussed and orbit determination results are presented from the processing of actual SEASAT altimeter data.     

Acidification of Europa's subsurface ocean as a consequence of oxidant delivery

Oxidants are formed at the surface of Europa and may be delivered to the subsurface ocean, possibly in great quantities. Whether these substances would be available for biological metabolism is uncertain, because they may react with sulfides and other compounds to generate sulfuric and other acids. If this process has been active on Europa for much of its age, then not only would it rob the ocean of life-supporting oxidants but the subsurface ocean could have a pH of ~2.6, which is so acidic as to present an environmental challenge for life, unless organisms consume or sequester the oxidants fast enough to ameliorate the acidification.     

Serpentinization and its implications for life on the early Earth and Mars

Ophiolites, sections of ocean crust tectonically displaced onto land, offer significant potential to support chemolithoautotrophic life through the provision of energy and reducing power during aqueous alteration of their highly reduced mineralogies. There is substantial chemical disequilibrium between the primary olivine and pyroxene mineralogy of these ophiolites and the fluids circulating through them. This disequilibrium represents a potential source of chemical energy that could sustain life. Moreover, E (h)-pH conditions resulting from rock- water interactions in ultrabasic rocks are conducive to important abiotic processes antecedent to the origin of life. Serpentinization--the reaction of olivine- and pyroxene-rich rocks with water--produces magnetite, hydroxide, and serpentine minerals, and liberates molecular hydrogen, a source of energy and electrons that can be readily utilized by a broad array of chemosynthetic organisms. These systems are viewed as important analogs for potential early ecosystems on both Earth and Mars, where highly reducing mineralogy was likely widespread in an undifferentiated crust. Secondary phases precipitated during serpentinization have the capability to preserve organic or mineral biosignatures. We describe the petrology and mineral chemistry of an ophiolite-hosted cold spring in northern California and propose criteria to aid in the identification of serpentinizing terranes on Mars that have the potential to harbor chemosynthetic life.     

速度聚束调制对顺轨干涉SAR浅海地形成像的影响研究

通过理论推导,证明了顺轨干涉SAR对海洋成像时同普通SAR一样,存在速度聚束调制。速度聚束调制使得顺轨SAR对海洋成像时产生一种非线性映射关系,这种非线性映射关系与径向流场的方位向梯度变化以及平台到目标的斜距与平台运动速度的比值(R/V)有关。以方位向存在一定坡度的浅海地形为例,分析了速度聚束调制对顺轨干涉SAR浅海地形成像的影响。仿真结果分析表明：当径向流场在方位向上存在梯度变化时,根据梯度变化的大小和方向的不同,会使浅海地形特征在顺轨干涉SAR相位图像上产生压缩、拉伸甚至混叠等失真,且R/V越大失真越严重。     

Biogenesis and early life on Earth and Europa: favored by an alkaline ocean?

Recent discoveries about Europa--the probable existence of a sizeable ocean below its ice crust; the detection of hydrated sodium carbonates, among other salts; and the calculation of a net loss of sodium from the subsurface--suggest the existence of an alkaline ocean. Alkaline oceans (nicknamed "soda oceans" in analogy to terrestrial soda lakes) have been hypothesized also for early Earth and Mars on the basis of mass balance considerations involving total amounts of acids available for weathering and the composition of the early crust. Such an environment could be favorable to biogenesis since it may have provided for very low Ca2+ concentrations mandatory for the biochemical function of proteins. A rapid loss of CO2 from Europa's atmosphere may have led to freezing oceans. Alkaline brine bubbles embedded in ice in freezing and impact-thawing oceans could have provided a suitable environment for protocell formation and the large number of trials needed for biogenesis. Understanding these processes could be central to assessing the probability of life on Europa.     

Sulfate content of Europa's ocean and shell: evolutionary considerations and some geological and astrobiological implications

Recent models for the origin of Jupiter indicate that the Galilean satellites were mostly derived from largely unprocessed solar nebula solids and planetesimals. In the jovian subnebula the solids that built Europa were first heated and then cooled, but the major effect was most likely partial or total devolatilization, and less likely to have been wholesale thermochemical reprocessing of rock + metal compositions (e.g., oxidation of Fe and hydration of silicates). Ocean formation and substantial alteration of interior rock by accreted water and ice would occur during and after accretion, but none of the formation models predicts or implies accretion of sulfates. Europa's primordial ocean was most likely sulfidic. After accretion and later radiogenic and tidal heating, the primordial ocean would have interacted hydrothermally with subjacent rock. It has been hypothesized that sulfides could be converted to sulfates if sufficient hydrogen was lost to space, but pressure effects and the impermeability of serpentinite imply that extraction of sulfate from thoroughly altered Europa-rock would have been inefficient (if indeed Mg sulfates formed at all). Permissive physical limits on the extent of alteration limit the sulfate concentration of Europa's evolved ocean to 10% by weight MgSO(4) or equivalent. Later oxidation of the deep interior of Europa may have also occurred because of water released by the breakdown of hydrated silicates, ultimately yielding S magma and/or SO(2) gas. Geological and astrobiological implications are considered.     

The search for life on Europa: limiting environmental factors, potential habitats, and Earth analogues

The putative ocean of Europa has focused considerable attention on the potential habitats for life on Europa. By generally clement Earth standards, these Europan habitats are likely to be extreme environments. The objectives of this paper were to examine: (1) the limits for biological activity on Earth with respect to temperature, salinity, acidity, desiccation, radiation, pressure, and time; (2) potential habitats for life on Europa; and (3) Earth analogues and their limitations for Europa. Based on empirical evidence, the limits for biological activity on Earth are: (1) the temperature range is from 253 to 394 K; (2) the salinity range is a(H2O) = 0.6-1.0; (3) the desiccation range is from 60% to 100% relative humidity; (4) the acidity range is from pH 0 to 13; (5) microbes such as Deinococcus are roughly 4,000 times more resistant to ionizing radiation than humans; (6) the range for hydrostatic pressure is from 0 to 1,100 bars; and (7) the maximum time for organisms to survive in the dormant state may be as long as 250 million years. The potential habitats for life on Europa are the ice layer, the brine ocean, and the seafloor environment. The dual stresses of lethal radiation and low temperatures on or near the icy surface of Europa preclude the possibility of biological activity anywhere near the surface. Only at the base of the ice layer could one expect to find the suitable temperatures and liquid water that are necessary for life. An ice layer turnover time of 10 million years is probably rapid enough for preserving in the surface ice layers dormant life forms originating from the ocean. Model simulations demonstrate that hypothetical oceans could exist on Europa that are too cold for biological activity (T < 253 K). These simulations also demonstrate that salinities are high, which would restrict life to extreme halophiles. An acidic ocean (if present) could also potentially limit life. Pressure, per se, is unlikely to directly limit life on Europa. But indirectly, pressure plays an important role in controlling the chemical environments for life. Deep ocean basins such as the Mariana Trench are good analogues for the cold, high-pressure ocean of Europa. Many of the best terrestrial analogues for potential Europan habitats are in the Arctic and Antarctica. The six factors likely to be most important in defining the environments for life on Europa and the focus for future work are liquid water, energy, nutrients, low temperatures, salinity, and high pressures.     

Evidence for scaling behavior of some oceanic characteristics according to surface and space observation data

In this paper, we apply methods of nonparametric statistics to analyze data on wind wave heights in areas where, according to the satellite data, sea (ocean) surface temperature (SST) fall is observed due to intensity of coastal wind sea roughness. The analysis of this data by time factor has shown uniformity of wind wave heights and swell over time factor for all considered regions. In certain cases of regional process development, interaction of non-uniform fields of wind waves and swell in coastal ‘squares’ is possible.     

Microorganisms metabolizing on clay grains in 3-km-deep Greenland basal ice

We have discovered > 10(8) microbial cells/cm3 attached to clay grains in the bottom 13 m of the GISP2 (Greenland Ice Sheet Project) ice core. Their concentration correlates with huge excesses of CO2 and CH4. We show that Fe-reducing bacteria produce most of the excess CO2 and methanogenic archaea produce the excess CH4. The number of attached cells per clay grain is proportional to grain perimeter rather than to area, which implies that nutrients are accessed at grain edges. We conclude that Fe-reducing microbes immobilized on clay surfaces metabolize via "shuttle" molecules that transport electrons to grain edges, where they reduce Fe(III) ions at edges to Fe(II) while organic acid ions are oxidized to CO2. Driven by the concentration gradient, electrons on Fe(II) ions at grain edges "hop" to Fe(III) ions inward in the same edges and oxidize them. The original Fe(III) ions can then attach new electrons from shuttle molecules at the edges. Our mechanism explains how Fe-reducers can reduce essentially all Fe(III) in clay minerals. We estimate that the Fe(III) in clay grains in the GISP2 silty ice can sustain Fe-reducing bacteria at the ambient temperature of -9 degrees C for approximately 10(6) years. F420 autofluorescence imaging shows that > 2.4% of the cells are methanogens, which account for the excess methane.     

High speed gas flows in explosions of cavitated explosives

A possibility of attaining steady flow of detonation products with specific energy much larger than the specific chemical energy of explosive is demonstrated in the case when a cylindrical charge of explosive is fitted with an evacuated cavity. Simple estimates and results of numerical analysis of the process are presented. Steady process may be considered to occur under the following assumptions: (1) effects arising due to jet interaction with cavity walls are negligible; (2) the detonation process is steady. In the case of limited explosive lengths these assumptions have been shown to be correct.When the cavity is filled with gas or liquid, a variety of steady and non-steady flow regimes is possible, depending on the density of the filling medium. One well-known case is that of flow with irregular reflection of shock waves at the cavity axis accompanied with the formation of Mach intersections. Another interesting flow regime is observed to occur in the case of low density filling medium (liquid hydrogen, for example). In this case the filling medium is driven by a “detonation piston” at constant velocity, equal to the velocity of detonation, forming a uniform growing column of hot shock-compressed matter, specific energy of which exceeds by one order of magnitude the specific energy of the explosive. Obviously, the walls of the vessel containing hydrogen must be able to withstand radial loads for a sufficiently long time (20 μ sec).The relative merits of these methods in comparison to others in high speed gas-dynamics is discussed.     

非线性飞行混沌运动的修正RBF神经网络控制

如何求神经网络控制使非线性空间飞行混沌运动不会发生。该法是在输出层用回归权代替常数权再用EM算法来估计回归权的参数 ,这样修正的RBF的神经网络控制就可使非线性空间飞行不会出现混沌现象。这种算法R Langari,L Wang&J Yen (1997) [1] 在研究径向基函数网络时提出过。其突出的优点是把复杂的多参数的最优化问题分离为N个小型最优化问题 ,这里N是隐藏层单元数。     

The potential for low-temperature abiotic hydrogen generation and a hydrogen-driven deep biosphere

The release and oxidation of ferrous iron during aqueous alteration of the mineral olivine is known to reduce aqueous solutions to such extent that molecular hydrogen, H2, forms. H2 is an efficient energy carrier and is considered basal to the deep subsurface biosphere. Knowledge of the potential for H2 generation is therefore vital to understanding the deep biosphere on Earth and on extraterrestrial bodies. Here, we provide a review of factors that may reduce the potential for H2 generation with a focus on systems in the core temperature region for thermophilic to hyperthermophilic microbial life. We show that aqueous sulfate may inhibit the formation of H2, whereas redox-sensitive compounds of carbon and nitrogen are unlikely to have significant effect at low temperatures. In addition, we suggest that the rate of H2 generation is proportional to the dissolution rate of olivine and, hence, limited by factors such as reactive surface areas and the access of water to fresh surfaces. We furthermore suggest that the availability of water and pore/fracture space are the most important factors that limit the generation of H2. Our study implies that, because of large heat flows, abundant olivine-bearing rocks, large thermodynamic gradients, and reduced atmospheres, young Earth and Mars probably offered abundant systems where microbial life could possibly have emerged.     

Non-intrusive,three-dimensional temperature and composition measurements inside fluid cells in microgravity using a confocal holography microscope

Application of a confocal scanning laser holography (CSLH) microscope to the study of fluid flow in a microgravity environment is described herein. This microscope offers a new, non-intrusive means to determine three-dimensional density gradients within solid objects, fluids, and plasmas, including flames. The index-of-refraction is determined from the phase measurements of the microscope, which is a function of the object temperature and composition. The object being studied is a fluid-cell chamber, which is heated and cooled on opposing walls to produce a steady-state fluid flow due to convection and heat transfer. The holograms are created from the interference of a “known” reference beam with an “unknown” object beam. A three-dimensional amplitude and phase image of the object is produced by the reconstruction of many holograms, where each hologram represents a scanned point inside the object.     

Some ecological mechanisms to generate habitability in planetary subsurface areas by chemolithotrophic communities: the Río Tinto subsurface ecosystem as a model system

Chemolithotrophic communities that colonize subsurface habitats have great relevance for the astrobiological exploration of our Solar System. We hypothesize that the chemical and thermal stabilization of an environment through microbial activity could make a given planetary region habitable. The MARTE project ground-truth drilling campaigns that sampled cryptic subsurface microbial communities in the basement of the Río Tinto headwaters have shown that acidic surficial habitats are the result of the microbial oxidation of pyritic ores. The oxidation process is exothermic and releases heat under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. These microbial communities can maintain the subsurface habitat temperature through storage heat if the subsurface temperature does not exceed their maximum growth temperature. In the acidic solutions of the Río Tinto, ferric iron acts as an effective buffer for controlling water pH. Under anaerobic conditions, ferric iron is the oxidant used by microbes to decompose pyrite through the production of sulfate, ferrous iron, and protons. The integration between the physical and chemical processes mediated by microorganisms with those driven by the local geology and hydrology have led us to hypothesize that thermal and chemical regulation mechanisms exist in this environment and that these homeostatic mechanisms could play an essential role in creating habitable areas for other types of microorganisms. Therefore, searching for the physicochemical expression of extinct and extant homeostatic mechanisms through physical and chemical anomalies in the Mars crust (i.e., local thermal gradient or high concentration of unusual products such as ferric sulfates precipitated out from acidic solutions produced by hypothetical microbial communities) could be a first step in the search for biological traces of a putative extant or extinct Mars biosphere.     

The potential for lithoautotrophic life on Mars: application to shallow interfacial water environments

We developed a numerical model to assess the lithoautotrophic habitability of Mars based on metabolic energy, nutrients, water availability, and temperature. Available metabolic energy and nutrient sources were based on a laboratory-produced Mars-analog inorganic chemistry. For this specific reference chemistry, the most efficient lithoautotrophic microorganisms would use Fe(2+) as a primary metabolic electron donor and NO(3)(-) or gaseous O(2) as a terminal electron acceptor. In a closed model system, biomass production was limited by the electron donor Fe(2+) and metabolically required P, and typically amounted to approximately 800 pg of dry biomass/ml ( approximately 8,500 cells/ml). Continued growth requires propagation of microbes to new fecund environments, delivery of fresh pore fluid, or continued reaction with the host material. Within the shallow cryosphere--where oxygen can be accessed by microbes and microbes can be accessed by exploration-lithoautotrophs can function within as little as three monolayers of interfacial water formed either by adsorption from the atmosphere or in regions of ice stability where temperatures are within some tens of degrees of the ice melting point. For the selected reference host material (shergottite analog) and associated inorganic fluid chemistry, complete local reaction of the host material potentially yields a time-integrated biomass of approximately 0.1 mg of dry biomass/g of host material ( approximately 10(9) cells/g). Biomass could also be sustained where solutes can be delivered by advection (cryosuction) or diffusion in interfacial water; however, both of these processes are relatively inefficient. Lithoautotrophs in near-surface thin films of water, therefore, would optimize their metabolism by deriving energy and nutrients locally. Although the selected chemistry and associated model output indicate that lithoautotrophic microbial biomass could accrue within shallow interfacial water on Mars, it is likely that these organisms would spend long periods in maintenance or survival modes, with instantaneous biomass comparable to or less than that observed in extreme environments on Earth.     

Analysis of the pre-flight and post-flight calibration procedures performed on the Liulin space radiation dosimeter

Liulin, a dosimetry-radiometry system, was developed to satisfy the requirements for active flux and dose rate measurements for the flight of the second Bulgarian cosmonaut in 1988. The system consists of a compact battery-operated silicon solid state detector unit and a read/write microcomputer and telemetry unit. We describe the pre-flight calibrations with charged particles, using radioactive sources and accelerated 170 MeV/nucleon proton and alpha particles at the Dubna, Russia cyclotron. We discuss comparisons with data obtained on Mir with the French-built tissue equivalent LET spectrometer NAUSICAA. Lastly, we describe post-flight calibrations performed with 1 GeV/nucleon 56Fe ions at the Brookhaven National Laboratory AGS accelerator, where the instrument was mounted in tandem with several thin position-sensitive silicon detectors behind a stopping target. The silicon detectors provided an energy spectrum for the surviving charged nuclear fragments for which the flux and absorbed dose were recorded by Liulin.     

Mineralogical biosignatures and the search for life on Mars

If life ever existed, or still exists, on Mars, its record is likely to be found in minerals formed by, or in association with, microorganisms. An important concept regarding interpretation of the mineralogical record for evidence of life is that, broadly defined, life perturbs disequilibria that arise due to kinetic barriers and can impart unexpected structure to an abiotic system. Many features of minerals and mineral assemblages may serve as biosignatures even if life does not have a familiar terrestrial chemical basis. Biological impacts on minerals and mineral assemblages may be direct or indirect. Crystalline or amorphous biominerals, an important category of mineralogical biosignatures, precipitate under direct cellular control as part of the life cycle of the organism (shells, tests, phytoliths) or indirectly when cell surface layers provide sites for heterogeneous nucleation. Biominerals also form indirectly as by-products of metabolism due to changing mineral solubility. Mineralogical biosignatures include distinctive mineral surface structures or chemistry that arise when dissolution and/or crystal growth kinetics are influenced by metabolic by-products. Mineral assemblages themselves may be diagnostic of the prior activity of organisms where barriers to precipitation or dissolution of specific phases have been overcome. Critical to resolving the question of whether life exists, or existed, on Mars is knowing how to distinguish biologically induced structure and organization patterns from inorganic phenomena and inorganic self-organization. This task assumes special significance when it is acknowledged that the majority of, and perhaps the only, material to be returned from Mars will be mineralogical.     

Radial velocity search for low mass companions of nearby stars

The detection of substellar companions of nearby stars is very difficult, because these objects are very faint and are located close to their bright parent stars. One way to attack this problem is to look for small periodic motion of the bright star, induced by the gravitational attraction exerted by the unseen small companion. Over the past decade stellar spectroscopy has been used by a few teams to monitor the radial velocities of several samples of stars, with a threshold for detection of companions well below the substellar limit of about 0.08 M. So far, only a few possible spectroscopic binaries have been identified where the unseen companions might be substellar.Recently, radio observers discovered that the millisecond pulsar PSR B1257+12 displays periodic variations in the pulse arrival times, indicating the existence of at least three unseen companions in circular orbits around the pulsar. This is the first convincing case for an extra-solar planetary system. This discovery suggests that planetary systems can form in very different situations, and therefore may prove to be common.