A space based radar on a micro-satellite for in-situ detection of small orbital debris

The increase in the number of satellites in the Near Earth Orbit is exponential. The consequent increase in pollution of the orbital environment is of growing concern to the international community. There are currently only two observation systems available for measurement of orbital debris. Ground based radar and telescopes can detect objects larger than about 7 cm. Passive space based systems provide an accurate statistical estimation of flux for debris smaller than about 0.1 mm in size. Consequently, there is no way of obtaining information about debris in the millimeter-size range. Considering that the relative speed between objects in space is commonly in the km/s range, millimeter sized debris carry enough energy to be deadly to astronauts or to totally destroy the functioning of any satellite. Then National space agencies have recommended launching orbital spacecraft carrying debris detection experiments for gaining a better understanding of small debris.CNES (the French Space Agency) is developing a new family of micro-satellites, that will make possible to put into orbit a totally new system of radar that could measure in-situ flux of debris. We present results of this system analysis, which would cumulate the advantages of both ground-based radar and in orbit passive experiments.The proposed method for detection is quite original and allows the radar to act like a band-pass filter with respect to the debris diameter. The optimum frequency is shown to be in the Ka-band. Two points are critical in the definition of the radar: the average power available and the false alarm probability in the detection criterion. Therefore, we present a special receiver chain in order to optimize the signal-to-noise ratio. The estimate of the radial velocity through Doppler frequency measurement may be used to discriminate orbital debris from meteoroids. This system could be built today using an existing Continuous Wave amplifier. Several hundreds of objects per year could be detected yielding an accurate statistical estimation.The orbital debris radar would be a major contribution to our knowledge of millimeter sized debris. This experiment would contribute to making the current models more accurate at all inclinations. The micro-satellite concept would make the orbital debris radar mission cheap enough for considering a constellation of such satellites.     

Study on electrodynamic tether system for space debris removal

As a countermeasure for suppressing space debris growth (P. Eighler, A. Bade, Chain Reaction of Debris Generation by Collisions in Space—A Final Threat to Spaceflight? in: 40th Congress of the International Astronautical Federation, IAA-89-628, October 1989), the National Aerospace Laboratory of Japan is investigating a satellite capture, repair and removal system for non-cooperative satellites, part of which involves assessing the viability of electrodynamic tether (EDT) technology as an orbital transfer system. In this paper, some results concerning the time required to remove existing satellites, the behavior of flexible tethers during the debris separation phase, and orbital transfer strategies of EDT systems during space debris removal operations are described. From numerical simulations, it is found that EDT systems can transfer satellites from LEO to orbits with a short lifetime within a realistic timeframe. It is also found that the stability of EDT systems is compromised when debris separation occurs both while a tether current is running and when the ratio of the end mass to that of the service satellite is high. To ensure stability, the end mass should be selected from the target debris group with due regard for the maximum possible mass that can be maneuvered safely. Moreover, it is also found that orbital elements (a, e, i) can be changed independently with an adequate current control strategy.     

空间碎片国际机制发展趋势分析

文章通过对空间碎片国际机制(多边谈判机制)的分析,指出其发展趋势,从而为中国参加相关谈判工作提供参考。空间碎片国际机制的发展已呈现出明显的政策化、法律化和制度化的趋势。无论是从外空利益争夺、外空战略实现,还是从中国航天事业可持续发展、中国航天立法体系完善的角度来讲,积极参加空间碎片技术合作与规则制定的国际谈判都具有重要意义。从国内建设上来看,中国应尽快制定“技术—政策(战略)—法律”三位一体的解决思路和具体方案;从国际层面看,可以借鉴美国一直坚持和贯彻的“技术—政策—国内规则—国际软法—国际法”外空策略,来开展空间碎片减缓和清除等方面的技术与规则制定的合作。     

Modelling of Ejecta as a Space Debris Source

When a micro-debris or a micrometeoroid impacts a spacecraft surface, a large number of secondary particles, called ejecta, are produced. These particles can contribute to a modification of the debris environment: either locally by the occurrence of secondary impacts on the components of complex and large space structures, or at great distance by the formation of a population of small orbital debris. This paper describes firstly, the ejecta overall production, and secondly, the lifetime and the orbital evolution of the particles. Finally the repartition of ejecta in LEO is computed. Some results describing the population as a function of size and altitude are presented.     

Evaluation of a satellite constellation for active debris removal

This paper analyzes an example of a three-dimensional constellation of debris removal satellites and proposes an effective constellation using a delta-V analysis that discusses the advisability of rendezvousing satellites with space debris. Lambert?s Equation was used to establish a means of analysis to construct a constellation of debris removal satellites, which has a limit of delta-V injection by evaluating the amount of space debris that can be rendezvoused by a certain number of removal satellite. Consequently, we determine a constellation of up to 38 removal satellites for debris removal, where the number of space debris rendezvoused by a single removal satellite is not more than 25, removing up to 584 pieces of debris total. Even if we prepare 38 removal satellites in their respective orbits, it is impossible to remove all of the space debris. Although many removal satellites, over 100 for example, can remove most of the space debris, this method is economically disproportionate. However, we can also see the removal satellites are distributed nearly evenly. Accordingly, we propose a practical two-stage strategy. The first stage is to implement emergent debris removal with the 38 removal satellites. When we find a very high probability of collision between a working satellite and space debris, one of the removal satellites in the constellation previously constructed in orbit initiates a maneuver of emergent debris removal. The second stage is a long-term space debris removal strategy to suppress the increase of space debris derived from collisions among the pieces of space debris. The constellation analyzed in this paper, which consists of the first 38 removal satellites, can remove half of the over 1000 dangerous space debris among others, and then the constellation increases the number of the following removal satellites in steps. At any rate, an adequate orbital configuration and constellation form is very important for both space debris removal and economic efficiency. Though the size of constellation of debris removal satellites would be small originally, such a constellation of satellites should be one of the initial constellations of removal satellites to ensure the safety of the future orbital environment.     

天基照相跟踪空间碎片批处理轨道确定研究

随着国内外天基观测空间碎片研究的展开,文章提出了利用跟踪卫星的CCD(Charge
Coupled Device)相机对空间碎片进行轨道探测的方法,首先建立了CCD照相观测模型和基于 照相观测 的空间碎片批处理轨道确定模型。通过对CCD相机底片归算方法的分析可知,利用
CCD相机所获得的观测数据与跟踪卫星的姿态无关,且其精度只与测量和坐标转换计算的精 度有关,在测量和计算中可获得较高的精度。分别对分布密度较高的低轨道和地球同步 轨道区域的空间碎片进行了定轨分析。仿真结果表明,定轨时采用两个跟踪弧段的照相数据 定轨精度大大高于一个弧段照相数据的定轨精度;跟踪卫星距离空间碎片越近,定轨精度越 高;低轨道空间碎片的定轨精度高于地球同步轨道上的空间碎片定轨精度。
     

Biobjective planning of an active debris removal mission

The growth of the orbital debris population has been a concern to the international space community for several years. Recent studies have shown that the debris environment in Low Earth Orbit (LEO, defined as the region up to 2000 km altitude) has reached a point where the debris population will continue to increase even if all future launches are suspended. As the orbits of these objects often overlap the trajectories of satellites, debris create a potential collision risk. However, several studies show that about 5 objects per year should be removed in order to keep the future LEO environment stable. In this article, we propose a biobjective time dependent traveling salesman problem (BiTDTSP) model for the problem of optimally removing debris and use a branch and bound approach to deal with it.     

Conceptualizing an economically,legally, and politically viable active debris removal option

It has become increasingly clear in recent years that the issue of space debris, particularly in low-Earth orbit, can no longer be ignored or simply mitigated. Orbital debris currently threatens safe space flight for both satellites and humans aboard the International Space Station. Additionally, orbital debris might impact Earth upon re-entry, endangering human lives and damaging the environment with toxic materials. In summary, orbital debris seriously jeopardizes the future not only of human presence in space, but also of human safety on Earth. While international efforts to mitigate the current situation and limit the creation of new debris are useful, recent studies predicting debris evolution have indicated that these will not be enough to ensure humanity?s access to and use of the near-Earth environment in the long-term. Rather, active debris removal (ADR) must be pursued if we are to continue benefiting from and conducting space activities. While the concept of ADR is not new, it has not yet been implemented. This is not just because of the technical feasibility of such a scheme, but also because of the host of economic, legal/regulatory, and political issues associated with debris remediation. The costs of ADR are not insignificant and, in today?s restrictive fiscal climate, are unlikely/to be covered by any single actor. Similarly, ADR concepts bring up many unresolved questions about liability, the protection of proprietary information, safety, and standards. In addition, because of the dual use nature of ADR technologies, any venture will necessarily require political considerations. Despite the many unanswered questions surrounding ADR, it is an endeavor worth pursuing if we are to continue relying on space activities for a variety of critical daily needs and services. Moreover, we cannot ignore the environmental implications that an unsustainable use of space will imply for life on Earth in the long run. This paper aims to explore some of these challenges and propose an economically, politically, and legally viable ADR option. Much like waste management on Earth, cleaning up space junk will likely lie somewhere between a public good and a private sector service. An international, cooperative, public-private partnership concept can address many of these issues and be economically sustainable, while also driving the creation of a proper set of regulations, standards and best practices.     

“凤凰”计划关键技术及其启示

为了充分利用地球静止轨道(GEO)的轨道资源,美国于2012年启动了针对GEO卫星的重复利用验证计划——"凤凰"计划。文章介绍了"凤凰"计划的概况,重点对其系统组成、任务等方面进行了介绍,归纳了其中的关键技术,如模块卫星总体设计技术、无线能源传输技术和新型在轨捕获技术等。最后,给出了美国发展在轨服务的若干启示:卫星重用将带来航天器发展的重大变革,注重创新技术开发等。     

Enhancement and Validation of the IDES Orbital Debris Environment Model

Orbital debris environment models are essential in predicting the characteristics of the entire debris environment, especially for altitude and size regimes where measurement data is sparse. Most models are also used to assess mission collision risk. The IDES (Integrated Debris Evolution Suite) simulation model has recently been upgraded by including a new sodium–potassium liquid coolant droplet source model and a new historical launch database. These and other features of IDES are described in detail. The accuracy of the IDES model is evaluated over a wide range of debris sizes by comparing model predictions to three major types of debris measurement data in low Earth orbit. For the large-size debris population, the model is compared with the spatial density distribution of the United States (US) Space Command Catalog. A radar simulation model is employed to predict the detection rates of mid-size debris in the field of view of the US Haystack radar. Finally, the small-size impact flux relative to a surface of the retrieved Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) spacecraft is predicted. At sub-millimetre sizes, the model currently under-predicts the debris environment encountered at low altitudes by approximately an order of magnitude. This is because other small-size debris sources, such as paint flakes have not yet been characterised. Due to the model enhancements, IDES exhibits good accuracy when predicting the debris environment at decimetre and centimetre sizes. Therefore, the validated initial conditions and the high fidelity future traffic model enables IDES to make long-term debris environment projections with more confidence.     

现代小卫星的发展及轨道垃圾问题

文章首先综述半个多世纪以来传统和现代小卫星的技术发展,特别是现代小卫星在对地观测、通信导航、空间技术实验与演示、深空探测、军事等方面的应用取得很多成就,尤其是对地观测高分辨率成像系统取得了突破性技术成就;其次讨论小卫星所产生的轨道垃圾及其影响和处理;最后提出未来小卫星技术发展十个原则,对未来小卫星的应用作了展望。     

Continuum Model for Space Debris Evolution with Account of Collisions and Orbital Breakups

The paper discusses the mathematical modeling of long-term orbital debris evolution taking into account mutual collisions of space debris particles of different sizes. Investigations and long-term forecasts of orbital debris environment evolution in low Earth orbits are essential for future space mission hazard evaluation and for adopting rational space policies and mitigation measures. The paper introduces a new approach to space debris evolution mathematical modeling based on continuum mechanics incorporating partial differential equations. This is an alternative to the traditional approaches of celestial mechanics incorporating ordinary differential equations to model fragments evolution. The continuum approach to orbital debris evolution modeling has essential advantages for describing the evolution of a large number of particles, because it replaces the traditional tracking of space objects by modeling the evolution of their density of distribution.     

基于计算机的低地球轨道航天器设计与观测的轨道碎片环境模型

文章介绍了一个半经验的基于计算机的轨道碎片模型。该模型将轨道环境简化为6个不同的倾角带,每个倾角带都有各自的半长轴和近地点分布及根据不同的碎片来源有其各自的尺寸分布。用碰撞概率方程将轨道碎片分布与航天器上的碎片通量或通过地面探测器视角的通量联系起来。经比较,碎片的半长轴、近地点和倾角分布与美国空间司令部大于10cm的碎片目录是一致的。对于较小的碎片,这些分布与地面望远镜、“干草堆”雷达的测量结果一致,同时也与LDEF卫星和航天飞机的测量结果一致。     

Use of Optical Characteristics to Identify Orbiting Material

Knowledge of the observable properties of orbital debris is necessary to validate debris models for both the low Earth orbit (LEO) and the geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO). Current methods determine the size and mass of orbital debris based on knowledge or assumption of the material type of the piece. Improvement in the knowledge of material is the goal of the research described herein. The process of using spectral absorption features to determine the material type is explored. A review of the optical measurements of orbital debris as well as current research in the area is discussed. Reflectances of common spacecraft materials are compared. The need for, and advances made possible by obtaining real data are explored. The prospects of the venture are investigated.     

地球静止轨道卫星撞击解体的数值模拟

分析了地球静止轨道（GE0）环内的物体现状,引入美国家航空航天局（NASA）的标准解体模型,给出了卫星撞击解体算法,编写了数值仿真软件,仿真研究了GEO卫星撞击解体形成碎片的特征及其轨道分布。结果表明：撞击会产生大量碎片,对空间环境造成长期的严重危害。研究结果对分析卫星撞击解体特性、保护空间环境有一定的参考价值。     

Policy and regulatory risk considerations for satellite communications

The London Institute of Space Policy and Law is presenting a series of seminars on risks associated with space activity and its insurance, aimed at fostering better understanding of the risks particular to commercial space projects, and at encouraging appropriate policy measures. Seminar IV-I on 5 February 2010 focused on policy and regulatory risk considerations for satellite communications. After an introduction by the seminar chair Jeremy Rose, senior consultant at telecommunications consultancy Comsys, and a welcome from Institute Director Sa'id Mosteshar, four speakers outlined the ideal regulatory framework for satellite communications, as well as current regulatory and policy risks at the international, regional and national level. Risks were discussed in ITU, EU and UK procedures and policies and debate was continued from the floor. The event's rapporteur summarizes the issues highlighted by the speakers and some of the interventions from the floor.     

Safety of space activities

Measures for the safety of space activities have to be elaborated by the scientific community. They should include principles for collision avoidance, possibly in the form of traffic separation schemes. A reduction of collision probabilities could be achieved by systematic removal of inactive satellites, by establishing disposal orbital belts and by reduction of space debris. Safety of space activities would be enhanced by the adoption of standards for the quality of technical equipment and for the competence of personnel. Also timely information on satellite movement should be made available.     

Active debris removal: Recent progress and current trends

According to all available findings at international level, the Kessler syndrome, increase of the number of space debris in Low Earth Orbits due to mutual collisions, appears now to be a fact, triggered mainly by several major break-ups in orbit which occurred since 2007. The time may have come to study how to clean this fundamentally useful orbital region in an active way.CNES has studied potential solutions for more than 12 years! The paper aims at reviewing the current status of these activities.The high level requirements are fundamental, and have to be properly justified. The working basis, as confirmed through IADC studies consists in the removal of 5–10 integer objects from the overcrowded orbits, spent upper stages or old satellites, as identified by NASA.The logic of CNES activities consider a stepped approach aiming at progressively gaining the required Technological Readiness Level on the features required for Active Debris Removal which have not yet been demonstrated in orbit. The rendezvous with a non-cooperative, un-prepared, tumbling debris is essential. Following maturation gained with Research and Technology programs, a set of small orbital demonstrators could enable a confidence high enough to perform a full end to end demonstration performing the de-orbiting of a large debris and paving the way for the development of a first generation operational de-orbiter.The internal CNES studies, led together by the Toulouse Space Centre and the Paris Launcher Directorate, have started in 2008 and led to a detailed System Requirements Document used for the Industrial studies.Three industrial teams did work under CNES contract during 2011, led by Thales Alenia Space, Bertin Technologies and Astrium Space Transportation, with numerous sub-contractors. Their approaches were very rich, complementary, and innovative. The second phase of studies began mid-2012. Some key questions nevertheless have to be resolved, and correspond generally to current IADC actions:The casualty risk associated to a “passive” de-orbitation is of paramount importance, major driver between passive and active re-entry,The residual movement of debris is crucial for the interfacing phase, whichever the solution is,The debris physical state in orbit is a major question,Some solutions increase the collision risk, but for a limited time period; we may not have yet the appropriate tools.The paper gives a status of where we stand, of the cooperation with the international partners, and raises the questions which remain open and have to be dealt with in the coming months.     

Computational methodology to predict satellite system-level effects from impacts of untrackable space debris

This paper presents a computational methodology to predict the satellite system-level effects resulting from impacts of untrackable space debris particles. This approach seeks to improve on traditional risk assessment practices by looking beyond the structural penetration of the satellite and predicting the physical damage to internal components and the associated functional impairment caused by untrackable debris impacts. The proposed method combines a debris flux model with the Schäfer–Ryan–Lambert ballistic limit equation (BLE), which accounts for the inherent shielding of components positioned behind the spacecraft structure wall. Individual debris particle impact trajectories and component shadowing effects are considered and the failure probabilities of individual satellite components as a function of mission time are calculated. These results are correlated to expected functional impairment using a Boolean logic model of the system functional architecture considering the functional dependencies and redundancies within the system.     

Tethers and debris mitigation

In recent years, the use of tethers has been proposed for reduction of space debris either through momentum transfer or use of electrodynamic effects. Tethers have been shown to at least theoretically allow for quick, elegant and cost-effective deorbit of defunct satellites or spent stages. On the other hand, the large risk that tethers themselves may pose to other satellites in orbit has been recognized as well. The large collision area of tethers, combined with operational hazards and meteoroid risk may result in a large orbital exposure. For example, in 1997, the ESA/Dutch 35-km tether deployment of YES from TEAMSAT was inhibited after an analysis of the collision risk for the case the tether operation would fail. The question rises how these two points of view compare to eachother. This paper intends to highlight a representative selection of the proposed tether applications while taking into account the added risks caused by the tethers themselves.Typical applications from recent literature will be briefly described, such as an Ariane 502 spent stage re-entry from GTO and the concept of deboost of defunct satellites by interaction of a conductive tether with the Earth magnetic field.Mass savings of the tethered sytems versus conventional equivalents will be evaluated.Based on a crude risk analysis, involving elements such as mission complexity, dynamic stability, meteoroid risk and orbital life time, a general outline of limiting factors can be given for the various applications. Special attention is reserved for implementation of mechanisms that help reduce this tether risk, such as the DUtether (Tether Degradable by Ultraviolet), utilization of airdrag and solar pressure, the effect of residual current in bare tethers, tether retrieval etc.It is proposed how a net tether-induced mitigation can be compared to that of conventional alternatives, i.e. deboost by rocket engine or a completely passive approach.This comparison is put in the perspective of an ever-increasing occupation of the space environment.It is concluded that tethers can in fact help mitigate the debris risk and that for each application a useful niche can be defined. It is argued that eliminating pollution directly after use of the precious resource of space is not only good custom, but also an important way to make the risk of debris controllable and independent of future trends. Although tethers may have large exposure in terms of area-time product, they deliver a quick cleaning service that may be appreciated by the future users of space.