A European view on UNISPACE III follow-up

Preparations for the third UN Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNISPACE III) were intense. The conference itself was a success. But what forms will the follow-up take? Just reading the 150-page report is an effort in itself. Having played a central part in the preparations and organization, Europe fully appreciates the need to build on the spirit of cooperation which emerged from UNISPACE III. In November 1999, the European States gathered to analyze the results of the conference and to set a course for their future participation in the United Nations Programme on Space Applications (UNPSA), which is mainly done through ESA, and for their participation in the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS), which is done through coordination among ESA Member States. This article presents the authors’ personal accounts of the results of the European efforts around UNISPACE III and shows how ‘European foreign policy’ can work in international space policy. It also seeks to illustrate Europe's commitment to putting space technology to work for the benefit of development throughout the world.     

Review of the work of COPUOS in 2009

This report summarizes recent activities of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space as carried out by its two subcommittees on scientific and technical, and legal, matters, respectively. Deliberation covers the whole range of civil space activity, with an emphasis on implementing the recommendations of Unispace III and promoting the use of space-based services in developing countries. Discussions expected in the second half of 2009 are also reviewed.     

The new debate on the working methods of the UNCOPUOS Legal Subcommittee

The 2014 session of the Legal Subcommittee (LSC) of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS) saw a particularly extensive and thorough debate on the working methods of this forum, which has the status of the highest body in space law making. By discussing the working methods it also became apparent how delegations actually regard the LSC and what expectations they have from it. In a time of considerable changes in space activities and space diplomacy alike, it was only a matter of time that such a comprehensive discussion arose. And while it did not immediately lead to decisions, it provided numerous signals for the future of the LSC.     

Space Agency Forum prepares UNISPACE III

On 19-20 May 1998 the German Aerospace Center (DLR) hosted the Space Agency Forum (SAF) at Berlin. The meeting was dedicated to the preparation of the Third United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNISPACE III), which will take place in July 1999. It was attended by 16 space agencies and international organisations from Europe, North- and South America as well as Asia. In this report, first UNISPACE III will be introduced and then the results of the SAF meeting will be reported.     

The origins of the “Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities” initiative at UN COPUOS

The success of space-based systems worldwide, providing services to society and satisfying defence and security needs, has led to a situation where outer space is increasingly crowded. In addition, the rapid proliferation of space debris threatens the safe utilization of outer space on the most commonly used orbits. Beyond the mitigation of the orbital debris threat, additional measures will be needed to ensure the safety and security of activities in outer space for the long-term. This article describes the initiative to introduce a new agenda item in the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS), first presented to COPUOS delegations in 2007, which led to a formal decision in 2009. This in turn led to the establishment of a dedicated Working Group of the Scientific and Technical Sub-Committee in 2010, with a work plan leading to a report and associated recommendations in 2014. Some references are made to other initiatives affecting space security, such as the Russia–China draft treaty (PPWT) tabled at the Conference on Disarmament and the EU-proposed Code of Conduct.     

Progress in basic space science education and research: The UNBSSI

This report describes recent progress in the UN Basic Space Science Initiative (UNBSSI), which aims to facilitate space science education and research, and attendant resources in developing countries. In addition to holding workshops across the developing world, the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) successfully implemented the International Heliophysical Year (IHY) as a catalyst for improving understanding of the Sun and of solar-terrestrial physics. Building on this it is now preparing for the International Space Weather Initiative (ISWI). Achievements of the former are discussed, as are the goals and anticipated activities of the latter.     

Space Debris at the United Nations

Rules for activities in outer space are agreed upon in the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space of the United Nations. Several international treaties have been adopted in the 1970s, that is, at a time before space debris became a concern for the international community. In the years 1979–1988 numerous documents were prepared by the UN Secretariat on space debris, but no official discussions of the problem were initiated by states members of the COPUOS. First proposals for introducing the matter to the UN appeared around 1988, after important studies on the subject were published by states and leading intergovernmental organizations. Also the International Telecommunication Union became concerned about the proliferation of space debris in the geostationary orbit and adopted in 1993 a recommendation to restrict the generation of debris and to re-orbit satellites approaching the end of their active lives into disposal orbits beyond the belt populated by active satellites. In 1994, the UN started discussing scientific and technical aspects of space debris. In the following years, with the assistance of experts from prominent space agencies, it elaborated a Technical Report on space debris. Legal aspects of the problem have not yet begun being discussed because the necessary consensus among states members of the COPUOS has not yet been achieved. Very recently, the UN received first information on a wider subject, space traffic management.     

Quo vadis COPUOS?

Since 1958, the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) has been an international forum working to build a body of space law by universal consensus, a method of working which has been essential to ensuring the enforce-ability of its decisions. This consensus has degenerated in recent years, slowing the progress of space law — which has now fallen dangerously behind the development of space technology. Some important recent decisions have had to be taken by majority voting rather than consensus, to overcome the paralysis of COPUOS. This, however, can only be a temporary solution. The author makes an urgent plea for a return to COPOUS and its methods.     

The United Nations Programme on Space Applications: Status and direction for 2010

The United Nations Programme on Space Applications was established in 1971 to assist countries in making full use of the benefits of space technology and its applications for social and economic development. Since its inception the programme has organized numerous training courses, workshops, seminars and conferences and provided funding support for more than 10?000 experts, mainly from developing countries, to participate in those activities. The programme has continuously evolved over four decades, taking into account the latest developments in the field of space activities, to best serve the capacity-building needs of countries and to help ensure that space-based solutions contribute to improving life on Earth. This report describes the status and direction of the UN Programme on Space Applications as recommended for approval by the UN’s Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS) Scientific and Technical Subcommittee at its 47th session held in Vienna in February 2010.     

地球静止轨道空间碎片的处置

介绍了国际机构间碎片协调委员会提出的关于地球静止轨道（GEO）空间碎片问题的研究结果和碎片处置的建议，主要内容包括：GEO与GEO环的概念、EGO上物体现状，EGO空间碎片处置的基本原则和8条具体处置措施建议。该建议已于2000年2月提交联合国和平利用外层空间委员会科技小组委员会第37届会议。     

Space nuclear power and the UN: A growing fiasco

The work of the UN Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space was intensified following the accidental re-entry of the Soviet Cosmos 954 nuclear-powered satellite in 1978. But anyone thinking the purpose of the Committee's activity was to prevent the recurrence of such an accident will have been disabused by the USA's recent repudiation of the guidelines for the safe use of nuclear power supplies. The UN is good for political manoeuvring, argues the author of this Viewpoint, but real progress towards the safer use of nuclear power in space will originate elsewhere.     

The UN and space — 1989 review

In 1989, the two sub-committees of the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) - the Scientific and Technical Sub-Committee and the Legal Sub-Committee - held their 26th and 28th sessions, respectively, at UN Headquarters in New York. They subsequently produced reports which were discussed at the 33rd session of COPUOS in New York from 5 to 15 June 1989. N. Jasentuliyana, Director of the Outer Space Affairs Division at the UN, discusses their work.     

The role of the united nations in promoting international cooperation in peaceful uses of outer space

The Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) was established in 1959 by the United Nations General Assembly in order to review and foster international cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space and to consider legal issues arising from the exploration of outer space. Since its establishment, the Committee has addressed such issues as benefits from space activities, the definition and delimitation of outer space and the use of the geostationary orbit, implications of remote sensing, space sciences, space-based communications, navigation and meteorological systems, as well as use of nuclear power sources in outer space, space debris and spin-off benefits of space technology. At its session in 1996, a symposium on the ‘Utilization of micro- and small satellites for the expansion of low-cost space activities, taking into particular account the needs of developing countries’ was organized by COSPAR and IAF to complement discussions on this theme. It was noted at the symposium that the increasing number of small satellites, in particular the proposed introduction of multi-satellite ‘constellations’ at low orbits, would result in concentrations of satellite mass at certain regions of space around the Earth. Special provisions would be needed to minimize the probability of satellite breakups and collisions which might create more space debris and compromise the future of spaceflight.     

Space spin-offs: Making them known, improving their use

This paper identifies new ideas for using existing space technologies as spin-offs and considers the effectiveness of the use of such technologies for various industries and applications. It then explores the dissemination of knowledge and information about such spin-off technology and applications to various audiences. It proposes methods to improve the dissemination of such knowledge and information. The paper concludes with some recommendations on how the dissemination of information about space spin-offs can increase awareness and use of such technology and, in the long term, increase support for space activities. The perspective of this article is that of the world's various space agencies and the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS). It is recognized that truly effective spin-offs depend on the involvement of those outside the space arena, particularly the commercial, academic and governmental sectors. These sectors and the general public must see the value and cost efficiency of ‘spin-offs’ and of developing new technology and systems through space research programs or they will not succeed. This may require space agencies to stay more focused on research and to hand over functions and activities to these ‘outside sectors’ once ‘seeds are planted’.     

International space programmes and policies : N. Jasentuliyana and Ralph Chipman, eds North Holland, Amsterdam and New York, 1984, 552 pp, $65.00

The Second United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space ( 82) identified crucial problems and made recommendations on strategies for developing countries to bridge the gap with advanced nations in the area of space technology. This article addresses some issues which, although implicit in the Report, are not discussed in detail therein. The role of space science and related scientific research is particularly emphasized. Close attention is paid to the role of human factors, such as the motivation to conduct research, the motivation to engage in international cooperation, and the motivation to utilize and exploit space. Possible opportunities for space research for developing countries, as well as relevant issues concerning management of space, are briefly discussed.     

The participation of developing countries in space research

The Second United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (Unispace 82) identified crucial problems and made recommendations on strategies for developing countries to bridge the gap with advanced nations in the area of space technology. This article addresses some issues which, although implicit in the Unispace Report, are not discussed in detail therein. The role of space science and related scientific research is particularly emphasized. Close attention is paid to the role of human factors, such as the motivation to conduct research, the motivation to engage in international cooperation, and the motivation to utilize and exploit space. Possible opportunities for space research for developing countries, as well as relevant issues concerning management of space, are briefly discussed.     

Decision program on asteroid threat mitigation

The Association of Space Explorers Committee on Near-Earth Objects (NEOs) and its Panel on Asteroid Threat Mitigation have prepared a decision program to aid the international community in organizing a coordinated response to asteroid impact threats. The program is described in the ASE's report, Asteroid Threats: A Call for Global Response, which will be considered by the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space in its 2009 sessions. The findings and recommendations of this report are presented here as well as some of the major implications of the complex decision-making involved in developing a coordinated international response to the challenge of protecting the Earth from NEO impacts.     

Space debris and the world community

In the early years of space flight the United Nations rapidly developed the principles which now govern outer space activities. In contrast, international agencies have during the 1980s proved reluctant to confront the escalating problem of space debris, presumbly for fear of the likely expense of remedial action. The author of this Viewpoint argues that not all the necessary measures need be expensive, and even the most unpalatable would be cost effective in the long run. But concerted action is urgently needed before the problem becomes unmanageable. International discussions must be initiated through the Committee on the peaceful Uses of Outer Space without delay.     

Trends in the global space arena – Impact on Africa and Africa's response

Since the establishment of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Exploration and Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) in 1959, many actions that affect the advancement of the space frontier have been taken, within and outside COPUOS, in the interest of the global community, but without much input from Africa. Yet a number of African countries have joined those with assets in space, albeit without the necessary infrastructure on the ground. These actions vary in scope, in importance and in participation; however, they affect us all. Examples include the legal instruments that are in operation today for the exploration and peaceful uses of outer space, sustainability of the outer space environment and the Global Exploration Strategy– Framework for Coordination (GES–FC), conceived by 14 spacefaring nations; this laid out the details needed for an active global space exploration programme. This paper reflects on existing space-related regional cooperation arrangements at the inter-governmental level, including the African Leadership Conference on Space Science and Technology for Sustainable Development (ALC). Noting that, despite UN General Assembly endorsement of the need for developing countries to have access to the International Space Station (ISS), almost all in Africa have not, it asks what Africa might gain from such an experience. The paper concludes with an examination of where and why Africa needs to focus its immediate space-related efforts – on the ground here on Earth or in outer space?     

A sputnik IV saga

The Sputnik IV launch occurred on May 15, 1960. On May 19, an attempt to deorbit a ‘space cabin’ failed and the cabin went into a higher orbit. The orbit of the cabin was monitored and Moonwatch volunteer satellite tracking teams were alerted to watch for the vehicle demise. On September 5, 1962, several team members from Milwaukee, Wisconsin made observations starting at 4:49 a.m. of a fireball following the predicted orbit of Sputnik IV. Requests went out to report any objects found under the fireball path. An early morning police patrol in Manitowoc had noticed a metal object on a street and had moved it to the curb. Later the officers recovered the object and had it dropped off at the Milwaukee Journal. The Moonwarch team got the object and reported the situation to Moonwatch Headquarters at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. A team member flew to Cambridge with the object. It was a solid, 9.49 kg piece of steel with a slag-like layer attached to it. Subsequent analyses showed that it contained radioactive nuclei produced by cosmic ray exposure in space. The scientists at the Observatory quickly recognized that measurements of its induced radioactivity could serve as a calibration for similar measurements of recently fallen nickel–iron meteorites. Concurrently, the Observatory directorate informed government agencies that a fragment from Sputnik IV had been recovered. Coincidently, a debate in the UN Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space involved the issue of liability for damage caused by falling satellite fragments. On September 12, the Observatory delivered the bulk of the fragment to the US Delegation to the UN. Two days later, the fragment was used by US Ambassador Francis Plimpton as an exhibit that the time had come to agree on liability for damage from satellite debris. He offered the Sputnik IV fragment to USSR Ambassador P.D. Morozov, who refused the offer. On October 23, Drs. Alla Massevitch and E.K. Federov of the USSR visited the Observatory. They were shown the Sputnik IV fragment. Measurements on the fragment were reported at the American Geophysical Union meeting on December 28, 1962. Early in January, 1963, the Soviet Embassy told the State Department that the USSR wished to accept the remaining fragment. On January 5, 1963 it was picked up by the Soviet Embassy. This four-month saga dramatically illustrated the need for international agreements on satellite debris issues.