TFM imaging of aeroengine casing ring forgings with curved surfaces using acoustic field threshold segmentation and vector coherence factor

The aeroengine casing ring forgings have complex cross-section shapes, when the conventional ultrasonic or phased array is applied to detect such curved surfaces, the inspection images always have low resolution and even artifacts due to the distortion of the wave beam. In this article, taking a type of aeroengine casing ring forging as an example, the Total Focusing Method (TFM) algorithms for curved surfaces are investigated. First, the Acoustic Field Threshold Segmentation (AFTS) algorithm is proposed to reduce background noise and data calculation. Furthermore, the Vector Coherence Factor (VCF) is adopted to improve the lateral resolution of the TFM imaging. Finally, a series of 0.8 mm diameter Side-Drilled Holes (SDHs) are machined below convex and concave surfaces of the specimen. The quantitative comparison of the detection images using the conventional TFM, AFTS-TFM, VCF-TFM, and AFTS-VCF-TFM is implemented in terms of data volume, imaging Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR), and defect echo width. The results show that compared with conventional TFM, the data volume of AFTS-VCF-TFM algorithm for convex and concave is decreased by 32.39% and 73.40%, respectively. Moreover, the average SNR of the AFTS-VCF-TFM is gained up to 40.0 dB, while the average 6 dB-drop echo width of defects is reduced to 0.74 mm.     

Thermospheric gravity waves: Observations and interpretation using the transfer function model (TFM)

Gravity waves are prominent in the polar region of the terrestiral thermosphere, and can be excited by perturbations in Joule heating and Lorents force due to magnetospheric processes. We show observations from the Dynamics Explorer-2 satellite to illustrate the complexity of the phenomenon and review the transfer function model (TFM) which has guided our interpretation. On a statistical basis, the observed atmospheric perturbations decrease from the poles toward the equator and tend to correlate with the magnetic activity index, Ap, although individual measurements indicate that the magnetic index is often a poor measure of gravity wave excitation. The theoretical models devised to describe gravity waves are multifaceted. On one end are fully analytical, linear models which are based on the work of Hines. On the other end are fully numerical, thermospheric general circulation models (TGCMs) which incorporate non-linear processes and wave mean flow interactions. The transfer function model (TFM) discussed in this paper is between these two approaches. It is less restrictive than the analytical approach and relates the global propagation of gravity waves to their excitation. Compared with TGCMs, the TFM is simplified by its linear approximation; but it is not limited in spatial and temporal resolution, and the TFM describes the wave propagation through the lower atmosphere. Moreover, the TFM is semianalytical which helps in delineating the wave components. Using expansions in terms of spherical harmonics and Fourier components, the transfer function is obtained from numerical height integration. This is time consuming computationally but needs to be done only once. Once such a transfer function is computed, the wave response to arbitrary source distributions on the globe can then be constructed in very short order. In this review, we discuss some numerical experiments performed with the TFM, to study the various wave components excited in the auroral regions which propagate through the thermosphere and lower atmosphere, and to elucidate the properties of realistic source geometries. The model is applied to the interpretation of satellite measurements. Gravity waves observed in the thermosphere of Venus are also discussed.     

Enhanced electrothermal effect of carbon fibrous composites decorated with high conductive carbon nanotube webs

Literature has demonstrated that Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) can greatly enhance the electrical conductivity and matrix-dominated mechanical properties of fibrous composites. However, electrothermal coupling effect of CNTs on Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastics (CFRPs) has scarcely been considered. This work prepared and introduced thin and porous CNT webs to the surface or/and interface of a CFRP to enhance its electrothermal properties. The results show that CNT webs can enhance the transverse electrical conductivities of the CFRP by 231%−519% in a current range of 50–150 mA, when compared to the base-CFRP. Also, the surface temperature of CNT webs decorated CFRP can be improved by 20.5–32.3 °C within 3 min showing a self-heating rate of 6.8–10.8 °C/min just with an applied voltage of 20–30 V, increased by 152%−177% when compared to the base-CFRP (2.7–3.9 °C/min). Also, deicing can be finished within 4–10 min with a voltage of 18 V and an input power of 246 W/m². Moreover, the electrothermal processes nearly have no negative effect on the mechanical properties of the CFRP. The relatively low input power and short response time for deicing make the CNT webs decorated CFRP may be a potential new generation for aeronautical deicing structure.     

CFRP夹层结构超声特征成像检测

采用便携式超声特征成像检测系统全波列采集检测信号,通过对缺陷特征信号的提取和重构,实现自动识别,可适用于曲面等不规则面的检测,定量精度达到0.1 mm。实验结果表明低频窄带超声换能器能够减小铜网对声波的衰减和畸变,超声特征成像层析成像方法可以对表面铜网结构CFRP泡沫夹层中分层、冲击和脱粘缺陷进行识别并精确定位和定量。检测方法快捷准确、重复性好、可靠性高。     

环形阵列超声换能器的全聚焦成像方法及其应用

在检测高衰减的大厚度构件时,相控阵超声声束在非聚焦区域的声能量损失严重,采用线阵或矩阵超声换能器的检测精度和最大检测深度常难以满足要求。首先,建立了合成声束三维声场分布模型,分析了不同阵列超声换能器的空间声场能量分布特点,发现环阵超声换能器在相同聚焦深度处的声场特性更好,同时具有阵元数量少、声束焦斑沿轴线中心完全对称等特点。然后,建立了一种采用环阵超声换能器的全聚焦方法（TFM,Total Focusing Method）,并基于试样群速度测量结果对各向异性材料中的聚焦算法进行了优化。在这种方法中将所采集到的全矩阵数据沿换能器中心轴线进行重建,可实现沿深度方向的逐点无穷聚焦。最后,利用所研制的阵列超声C扫描自动检测系统对预埋有缺陷的3D打印钛合金试样进行了对比检测实验,结果表明采用全聚焦成像算法的环阵超声换能器能实现55 mm试样内部直径0.8 mm、深度5.0 mm平底孔和横孔缺陷的精确检测,相对于常规的动态聚焦算法有更高的检测信噪比和定量精度。     

Effects of surface topography and specimen thickness on high-speed raindrop impact damage of CFRP laminates

Raindrop impact erosion has been observed since early days of aviation, and can be catastrophic for exposed materials during supersonic flight. A single impact waterjet apparatus is established for mimicking drop impacts at the velocities between 350 m/s and 620 m/s. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer(CFRP) laminates with three different surface morphologies and specimen thicknesses are tested here. A central region with no visible damage has been noticed, surrounded by a “failure ring” with common...     

Improving surface integrity when drilling CFRPs and Ti-6Al-4V using sustainable lubricated liquid carbon dioxide

In the quest for decreasing fuel consumption and resulting gas emissions in the aeronautic sector, lightweight materials such as Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRPs) and Ti-6Al-4V alloys are being used. These materials, with excellent weight-to-strength ratios, are widely used for structural applications in aircraft manufacturing. To date, several studies have been published showing that the use of metalworking fluids (MWFs), special tool geometries, or advanced machining techniques is required to ensure a surface quality that meets aerospace component standards. Conventional MWFs pose a number of environmental and worker health hazards and also degrade the mechanical properties of CFRPs due to water absorption in the composite. Therefore, a transition to more environmentally friendly cooling/lubrication techniques that prevent moisture problems in the composite is needed. This research shows that lubricated LCO₂ is a viable option to improve the quality of drilled CFRP and titanium aerospace components compared to dry machining, while maintaining clean work areas. The results show that the best combination of tool geometry and cooling conditions for machining both materials is drilling with Brad point drills and lubricated LCO₂. Drilling under these conditions resulted in a 90 % improvement in fiber pull-out volume compared to dry machined CFRP holes. In addition, a 33 % reduction in burr height and a 15 % improvement in surface roughness were observed compared to dry drilling of titanium.     

可自展开碳纤维增强复合材料杆的制备与性能

采用T300碳纤维/环氧树脂预浸料制备了具有双凸透镜状构型的柔性铰链和圆管,通过金属法兰将铰链和圆管胶接组装得到可自展开碳纤维增强复合材料杆。研究了复合材料铰链的展开力矩和复合材料杆的固有频率及重复展开性能。结果表明:复合材料铰链的初始展开力矩为372.8 N·mm,功重比为13.3 W/kg,可自展开复合材料杆的一阶固有频率为4.25 Hz,重复指向精度为0.08°。     

Suppressing unsteady motion of shock wave by high-frequency plasma synthetic jet

Three Plasma Synthetic Jet Actuators (PSJA) under the high-frequency actuation are used to control the Shock Wave Boundary Layer Interaction (SWBLI), a high-speed schlieren image processing method based on spatial Fourier transform as well as snapshot proper orthogonal decomposition were used to study the control effect of high-frequency plasma synthetic jet on low-frequency unsteadiness of SWBLI. The analysis of the base flow shows that the separated shock wave actually has both large- and small-amplitude vibrations at low frequency. And the results revealed that the PSJA with an operating frequency of 2 kHz has the ability to reduce the energy of low-frequency component of shock wave motion, indicating that the 2 kHz actuation can effectively suppress low-frequency unsteadiness of the separated wave. Compared with the actuation frequency of 2 kHz, the energy of low-frequency component of the shock wave is enhanced under the 8 kHz actuation, which aggravates the low-frequency unsteady motion of the shock wave. It is likely that the actuation frequency is too high, thus the intensity of the precursor shock wave induced by PSJA becomes weaker. Additionally, as the 4 kHz actuation is applied, the pulsation of the separation region was enhanced, it is speculated that the actuation frequency is coupled with the oscillation frequency of the separation region.     

复合材料紧固孔分层激光超声量化表征试验

提出解决飞机复合材料结构紧固孔分层检测问题的途径。基于激光超声技术,进行复合材料紧固孔分层的量化表征试验。制备碳纤维增强复合材料紧固孔试样,根据复合材料中激光超声的激发参量选取原则,利用材料受脉冲激光辐照作用产生的热弹效应激发超声波,提取表征紧固孔区域分层缺陷的超声信号;分析影响缺陷表征准确度的关键因素,发现脉冲激光光斑尺寸（直径1~5 mm）变化对紧固孔分层的表征不产生显著影响;基于穿透法和脉冲反射法进行激光超声C扫描检测,得到紧固孔区域分层缺陷的形状、尺寸和位置特征。研究结果表明,利用激光超声技术的非接触式激发、接收和高分辨力特点,可以准确测得紧固孔区域分层缺陷导致的波反射和衰减,有效表征飞机复合材料结构的紧固孔分层缺陷。     

镗削碳纤维复合材料时切削用量对切削力及孔出口撕裂的影响

采用PCD刀具对碳纤维复合材料(CFRP)进行了镗削加工试验,分析了切削用量对切削力、孔出口撕裂因子(撕裂值与孔直径的比值)的影响规律.试验结果表明,三向切削力随背吃刀量、进给量、切削速率的增大而增大.经分析认为,切削速率的增大引起待加工材料的屈服应力增大.由于刀尖圆弧半径较大,试验中出现背向力大于主切削力的现象;撕裂因子与背吃刀量基本无关;进给量与撕裂因子呈线性正相关;当切削速率增大时撕裂因子呈减小趋势,并且减小到一定程度后基本不变;采用PCD刀具镗削加工该材料能够有效地减小孔出口撕裂程度.     

Optimization of flow field in electrochemical trepanning of integral cascades (Ti6Al4V)

Ti6Al4V is widely applied in the integral cascades of aero engines. As an effective machining method, electrochemical trepanning (ECTr) has unique advantages in processing surface parts made of hard-to-cut materials. In ECTr, the state of the flow field has a significant effect on processing stability and machining quality. To improve the uniformity of the flow field when ECTr is applied to Ti6Al4V, two different flow modes are designed, namely full-profile electrolyte supply (FPES) and edges electrolyte supply (EES). Different from the traditional forward flow mode, the flow directions of the electrolyte in the proposed modes are controlled by inlet channels. Simulations show that the flow field under EES is more uniform than that under FPES. To further enhance the uniformity of the flow field, the structure of EES is optimized by modifying the insulating sleeve. In the optimized configuration, the longitudinal distance between the center of the inlet hole and the center of the blade is 6.0 mm, the lateral distance between the centers of the inlet holes on both sides is 16.5 mm, the length to which the electrolyte enters the machining area is 1.5 mm, and the height of the insulating sleeve is 13.5 mm. A series of ECTr experiments are performed under the two flow modes. Compared with EES, the blade machined by FPES is less accurate and has poorer surface quality, with a surface roughness (R_a) of 3.346 μm. Under the optimized EES, the machining quality is effectively enhanced, with the surface quality improved from R_a = 2.621 μm to R_a = 1.815 μm, thus confirming the efficacy of the proposed methods.     

碳纤维复合材料层板冲击损伤的空气耦合兰姆波成像检测

非接触式超声兰姆波方法能够对大面积复合材料板材进行快速检测,在自动成像检测上有着突出的优势。针对碳纤维/树脂基复合材料(CFRP)层压板采用空气耦合超声探头激励出A0模态兰姆波。在含冲击损伤的层板试样的同一侧激发和接收兰姆波进行扫描检测,针对冲击损伤区域以互相正交的两个方向进行兰姆波扫查,获得了不同位置的检测信号。对比在有无缺陷处板材中兰姆波传播信号的特征,对采集信号进行频域分析,以无缺陷处信号值为基准,利用信号差异系数(SDC)作为特征值,将扫查信号数据采用特征值全加和全乘的数据融合方法进行了缺陷形貌重构成像。成像结果能够良好的体现出冲击损伤的位置和两个方向的尺寸大小。     

Effect of hygrothermal aging on moisture diffusion and tensile behavior of CFRP composite laminates

Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) composites are widely used in aircraft structures, because of their superior mechanical and lightweight properties. CFRP composites are often exposed to hygrothermal environments in service. Temperature and moisture can affect the material properties of composites. In order to make clear the moisture diffusion behavior and the properties degradation of composites, the TG800/E207 composite laminates with four stacking sequences [0]₁₆, [90]₁₆, [±45]_4s, and [(+45/0/0/–45)_s]_s are designed and manufactured. Moisture absorption tests are carried out at 80 ℃, 90 %RH. It is shown that the moisture absorption curves of composite laminates present a three-stage. A modified Fickian model was proposed to capture the diffusion behavior of TG800/E207 composite laminates. The relationships among the non-Fickian parameters, the environmental parameters and the stacking sequences of CFRP were correlated and compared. Results showed that the modified Fickian curve is sensitive to the diffusivity of Stage I and Stage II. Compared with unaged specimens, the maximum tensile stress for [0]₁₆, [90]₁₆, [±45]_4s, and [(+45/0/0/–45)_s]_s decreased by 14.94 %, 28.15 %, 11.96 %, and 26.36 %, respectively. The strains at failure for [0]₁₆, [90]₁₆, [±45]_4s, and [(+45/0/0/–45)_s]_s decreased by 55.38 %, 62.65 %, 46.41 %, and 31.71 %, respectively. The elastic modulus for [0]₁₆, [90]₁₆, [±45]_4s, and [(+45/0/0/–45)_s]_s increased by 90.93 %, 94.57 %, 49.22 %, and 8.22 %, respectively. [90]₁₆ sample has the minimum saturated moisture content and the maximum strength degeneration.     

Double-decoupled inverse design of natural laminar flow nacelle under transonic conditions

The inverse design based on the pressure distribution is an essential approach to realize the improvement of Natural Laminar Flow(NLF) performance for nacelles. However, the direct definition of target pressure distribution at design point is challenging for the dilemma to consider the constraints of shock wave and laminar flow at the same time. In addition, the universality of method will be limited when the inverse design is strongly coupled with the solver. Thus, a double-decoupled methodolog...     

Effects of fiber orientation on tool wear evolution and wear mechanism when cutting carbon fiber reinforced plastics

The aim of the present paper is to reveal the influence of different fiber orientations on the tool wear evolution and wear mechanism. Side-milling experiments with large-diameter milling tools are conducted. A finite element (FE) cutting model of carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP) is established to get insight into the cutting stress status at different wear stages. The results show that different fiber orientations bring about distinct differences in the extent, profile and mechanism of tool wear. Severer wear occurs when cutting 45° and 90° plies, followed by 0°, correspondingly, the least wear is obtained when θ = 135° (θ represents the orientation of fibers). Moreover, the worn profiles of cutting tools when θ = 0° and 45° are waterfall edge, while round edge occurs when θ = 135° and a combined shape of waterfall and round edge is obtained when θ = 90°. The wear mechanisms under different fiber orientations are strongly dependent on the cutting stress distributions. The evolution of tool wear profile is basically consistent with the stress distribution on the tool surface at different wear stages, and the extent of tool wear is determined by the magnitude of stress on the tool surface. Besides, the worn edges produce an actual negative clearance angle, which decreases the actual cutting thickness and leads to compressing and bending failure of fibers beneath the cutting region as well as low surface qualities.     

Defect suppression mechanism of ultrasonic vibration-assisted drilling carbon fiber/bismaleimide composite

Ultrasonic vibration-assisted drilling (UVAD) has recently been successfully applied in the drilling of carbon fiber reinforced polymer/plastic (CFRP) due to its high reliability. Multiple defects have been observed in the CFRP drilling process which negatively affects the quality of the hole. The carbon fiber/bismaleimide (BMI) composites is an advanced kind of CFRPs with greater strength and heat resistance, having been rapidly applied in lightweight and high temperature resistant structures in the aerospace field. To suppress the defect during the drilling of carbon fiber/BMI composites, it is necessary to comprehensively understand the defect formation and suppression mechanism at different positions. In this study, the defects formation in both conventional drilling (CD) and UVAD were observed and analyzed. The variation trend in the defect factor and thrust force with the spindle speed and feed rate were acquired. The results revealed that the UVAD could significantly enhance the hole’s quality with no delamination and burr. Meanwhile, the defect suppression mechanism and thrust force in UVAD were analyzed and verified, where the method of rod chip removal affected the exit defect formation. In summary, UVAD can be considered a promising and competitive technique for drilling carbon fiber/BMI composites.     

CFRP超高周疲劳损伤演化过程

碳纤维增强树脂基复合材料（CFRP）在航空航天等领域得到广泛应用，CFRP构件的超高周疲劳问题逐渐凸显出来。本文采用超声三点弯曲疲劳试验系统对CFRP复合材料的损伤演化过程进行研究。结果表明：CFRP复合材料在超高周三点弯曲加载下的S-N曲线呈阶梯状，尤其在10⁸周次后，其疲劳强度明显下降。通过对CFRP复合材料在同一视场不同周次下的损伤过程进行分析，发现该材料在超高周加载下的损伤形貌主要表现为3种特征：纤维束交叉处基体损坏、近纤维束平行段基体空洞、基体贯穿，并随着加载周次的增加，其损伤过程也按照这3种特征依次呈现出来。     

Improving profile accuracy and surface quality of blisk by electrochemical machining with a micro inter-electrode gap

Electrochemical machining (ECM) has emerged as an important option for manufacturing the blisk. The inter-electrode gap (IEG) distribution is an essential parameter for the blisk precise shaping process in ECM, as it affects the process stability, profile accuracy and surface quality. Larger IEG leads to a poor localization effect and has an adverse influence on the machining accuracy and surface quality of blisk. To achieve micro-IEG (<50 μm) blisk finishing machining, this work puts forward a novel variable-parameters blisk ECM strategy based on the synchronous coupling mode of micro-vibration amplitude and small pulse duration. The modelling and simulation of the blisk micro-IEG machining have been carried out. Exploratory experiments of variable-parameters blisk ECM were carried out. The results illustrated that the IEG width reduced with the progress of variable parameter process. The IEG width of the blade’s concave part and convex part could be successfully controlled to within 30 μm and 21 μm, respectively. The profile deviation for the blade’s concave surface and convex surface are 49 μm and 35 μm, while the surface roughness reaches R_a = 0.149 μm and R_a = 0.196 μm, respectively. The profile accuracy of the blisk leading/trailing edges was limited to within 91 μm. Compared with the currently-established process, the profile accuracy of the blade’s concave and convex profiles was improved by 50.5 % and 53.3 %, respectively. The surface quality was improved by 53.2 % and 50.9 %, respectively. Additionally, the machined surface was covered with small corrosion pits and weak attacks of the grain boundary due to selective dissolution. Some electrolytic products were dispersed on the machined surface, and their components were mainly composed of the carbide and oxide products of Ti and Nb elements. The results indicate that the variable-parameters strategy is effective for achieving a tiny IEG in blisk ECM, which can be used in engineering practice.     

Interaction of single-pulse laser energy with bow shock in hypersonic flow

Pressure sensing and schlieren imaging with high resolution and sensitivity are applied to the study of the interaction of single-pulse laser energy with bow shock at Mach 5. An Nd:YAG laser operated at 1.06 lm, 100 mJ pulse energy is used to break down the hypersonic flow in a shock tunnel. Three-dimensional Navier–Stokes equations are solved with an upwind scheme to simulate the interaction. The pressure at the stagnation point on the blunt body is measured and calculated to examine the pressure variation during the interaction. Schlieren imaging is used in conjunction with the calculated density gradients to examine the process of the interaction. The results show that the experimental pressure at the stagnation point on the blunt body and schlieren imaging fit well with the simulation. The pressure at the stagnation point on the blunt body will increase when the transmission shock approaches the blunt body and decrease with the formation of the rarefied wave. Bow shock is deformed during the interaction. Quasi-stationary waves are formed by high rate laser energy deposition to control the bow shock. The pressure and temperature at the stagnation point on the blunt body and the wave drag are reduced to 50%, 75% and 81% respectively according to the simulation. Schlieren imaging has provided important information for the investigation of the mechanism of the interaction.