对新型航天服背入式穿脱系统的评估

舱外活动（EVA）期间的工作能力取决于航天员穿着的航天服，能够快速、安全地穿上航天服，这种能力对于使EVA有效时间最大化是至关重要的。独立穿着航天服的能力也是必需的，航天服的灵活性限定了工作空间的包络面。适宜的活动性也同样是最大化有效EVA时间所必需的，     

适于先进航天服扩展性能测试的中性浮力技术

介绍 航天服设计是一个不断发展的领域，其目的是进一步提高航天员在太空或行星表面上的工作能力。随着与国际空间站（ISS）有关的舱外活动（EVA）大量增加，为改进美国航天飞机舱外活动装备（EMU）和俄罗斯“奥兰”航天服提供了一个持续不断的推动力。同样，火星载人飞行和重返月球任务提供了研发先进航天服系统的契机。     

月球和火星任务航天服使用需求与系统方案评估

为了保障NASA“太空愿景”（VSE）的完成，需要将人类送往月球和火星，其中包含了多种作业环境，在这些环境中航天员需要穿着舱内或舱外航天服。NASA提出了4种候选航天服体系结构，包含了从飞船发射、进入到微重力和行星表面舱外活动（EVA）保障任务高效完成的航天服数量和类型。本文进行的研究旨在确定VSE任务组成部分中航天服的使用和功能需求，确定当时的技术设计驱动因素，并为分析4种体系结构建立了相关权重因数。分析提出了对4种体系结构的选择建议。     

美俄航天员舱外活动航天服

美俄航天员舱外活动航天服俄罗斯为和平号空间站上航天员制作的站外活动用航天服（左）和美国为航天飞机上航天员制作的舱外活动用航天服（右）美国《航空航天技术》周刊的编辑詹姆斯·Ｒ·阿斯科分别试穿俄罗斯的航天服（左）和美国航天服（右）美俄航天员舱外活动航天服...     

一种混合弹性EVA手套的评估

本文阐述了对4000系列美国舱外航天服（EMU）手套和实验中混合弹性航天服手套的评估和比较。由于今后几年在国际空间站（ISS）建造和维护过程中日益增加的舱外活动（EVA），要求手套具有很高的灵巧性和活动性并能最大程度地减小航天员的手部疲劳。手套的设计通常被认为是航天服中最复杂、要求最苛刻的部分，大量报道已证实，上加压手套会引起性能和抓握力损失。更加灵巧的手套要求更低的代谢量，这种发展是今后主要的探索目标。     

舱外活动系统述评

舱外活动（EVA）系统可分为3部分：1）航天员装备系统,包括舱外航天服（EVA航天服）、安全系绳和机动装置;2）空间支持系统,包括气闸、约束装置、EVA工具、在轨训练设施、遥控自动操作装置,以及表面运输工具;3）地面试验、训练与保障系统,包括减重／失重设施、热／真空试验舱、虚拟现实模拟系统、星体表面模拟场地,以及任务保障设施。文章阐述EVA系统的组成与功能,评述EVA技术现状及发展趋势。     

ISS第六代先进EVA手套的发展及验证

简介 航天员能否成功完成舱外活动（EVA）高度依赖于其航天服手套的性能。自从航天飞机工程启动后，基础型的手套设计得到了不断的改进，在航天飞机中使用的EVA手套，最初称为1000系列，至今已经发展到4000系列。在这几代的改进中，材料的发展是最初的着重点。这些材料的变化大幅度提高了手套的性能，但是基础设计、硬件和设计理念都没有显著的改变。     

舱外活动期间多普勒监测仪的可行性

舱外航天服技术要求减小周围的压力，以方便航天员进行舱外活动。航天服的压力仅为30-40kpa（根据所用航天服的种类），这可能导致航天员出现减压病（DCS），这主要是由于航天员在标准大气压下呼吸正常空气而使氮气溶解到他的器官中而造成的。相对于航天服压力来讲，过量的氮气会在体液或组织中形成气泡，由此造成潜在的危险结果，即减压病的综合症状。     

俄罗斯舱外航天服防护材料相关技术研究

舱外航天服是航天员出舱活动所必须个体防护系统，具有为航天员提供生命保障的功能。在空间特殊的环境中，如高真空、极端温度交变环境、微流星和空间碎片、各种辐射等，舱外航天服外层材料必须有特殊的防护功能。     

在月球／火星重力环境下航天服的活动性评价

人们所预想的以及正在由美国国家航空及太空总署（NASA）计划的未来去月球和火星的人类探险任务，将包括广泛的这些星体上进行的舱外活动（EVA）。为了月球和火星的恶劣环境下工作和进行科学探险活动，航天员穿着防护性的航天服组件是必要的。在大量的舱外活动期间，首要考虑的就是在维持工作的有效性水平及航天员相对舒适的同时，需要提供加压航天服必要的适当的活动性特点。KC－135系列飞行器低重力飞行示范就是为了评价在模拟月球（1／6地球引力）和火星（0．37倍地球引力）环境下，阿波罗、航天飞机、MK－Ⅲ先进技术模型航天服和一般活动性能特性。     

一种舱内/月面兼用登月航天服总体概念设计

航天员在月面驻留与活动离不开登月航天服的保护。文章考虑载人登月任务环境对登月航天服的各种特殊要求后,从满足环境适应性的服装工艺设计角度对登月航天服进行了总体概念设计:应用基于模型的系统工程（MBSE）方法,利用SysML搭建登月航天服模型,采取舱内/月面兼用设计模式;主要对其头盔、躯干主体部分、手套、靴子、生命保障背包,以及安全性可靠性等方面分别开展设计与说明。该设计思路和方案可为我国载人登月以及载人深空探测航天服设计提供参考。     

The Soviet/Russian spacesuit history: Part III—The European connection

The European spacesuit system (ESSS) initiated by the European Space Agency (ESA) in the late 1980s had many similarities with the Soviet/Russian ORLAN spacesuit system, due to the Hermes system requirements. First, direct contacts in 1989 permitted closer comparison of the two suit systems, and soon the ORLAN manufacturer Zvezda could be contracted as support to the European spacesuit team. In particular, the suit enclosure design and predevelopment testing and operational analysis were performed in close cooperation between Zvezda and the European team under Dornier.

With the changing system requirements and a closer cooperation between ESA and the new Russian Space Agency (RKA) a new joint spaceplane/stations mission scenario came about. This scenario could be served by one spacesuit system, EVA SUIT 2000, which was to be jointly developed by a team headed by Zvezda and Dornier for ESA and RKA. ORLAN-DMA and ESSS experience and hardware were the initial platforms for these activities to create a new generation spacesuits for the Mir 2 and later the ISSs.

A suit demonstrator was manufactured and tested by the end of 1994 when ESA stopped its spacesuit development activities and the joint EVA SUIT 2000 project was terminated. However, many of the features designed, manufactured and tested for the EVA SUIT 2000 were then implemented by Zvezda in the new Russian spacesuit system ORLAN-M, now in full operation onboard the ISS.     

表面带电对航天员出舱活动的影响及对策分析

根据我国某载人航天器在轨飞行时的空间环境和航天器表面带电的机理,对航天器表面带电进行了仿真,并对结构切割地磁场的感应电势进行计算。在此基础上,分析了表面带电对航天员出舱的影响,以及出舱安全性防护措施,计算出主动电位控制系统最大发射电流。研究结果可为航天员出舱安全防护提供参考。     

Suited crewmember productivity

Analysis of the extravehicular activity (EVA) sortie experience gained in the former Soviet Union and physiologic hygienic aspect of space suit design and development shows that crewmember productivity is related to the following main factors: -space suit microclimate (gas composition, pressure and temperature); -limitation of motion activity and perception, imposed by the space suit; -good crewmember training in the ground training program; -level of crewmember general physical performance capabilities in connection with mission duration and intervals between sorties; -individual EVA experience (with accumulation) at which workmanship improves, while metabolism, physical and emotional stress decreases; -concrete EVA duration and work rate; -EVA bioengineering, including selection of tools, work station, EVA technology and mechanization.     

EVA worksite analysis—Use of computer analysis for EVA operations development and execution

To sustain the rate of extravehicular activity (EVA) required to assemble and maintain the International Space Station, we must enhance our ability to plan, train for, and execute EVAs. An underlying analysis capability has been developed to ensure EVA access to all external worksites as a starting point for ground training, to generate information needed for on-orbit training, and to react quickly to develop contingency EVA plans, techniques, and procedures. This paper describes the use of computer-based EVA worksite analysis techniques for EVA worksite design. EVA worksite analysis has been used to design 80% of EVA worksites on the U.S. portion of the International Space Station. With the launch of the first U.S. element of the station, EVA worksite analysis is being developed further to support real-time analysis of unplanned EVA operations. This paper describes this development and deployment of EVA worksite analysis for International Space Station (ISS) mission support.     

EVA: European plans

The current status of European EVA (extravehicular activity) plans is reviewed. The major difference to already existing EVA scenarios in U.S.A. and Soviet Union consists in the adoption of a higher suit pressure, namely 500 hPa. The results of a study concerned with the physiological consequences of this adoption are presented, including recommendations for protective procedures and their necessary experimental validation. A certain discrepancy between laboratory experimental decompression data and EVA operational results is discussed, leading to the identification of several items which may influence space decompression. Microgravity and the influence of the space suit itself are most likely factors in the explanation of this discrepancy, and both experimental procedures and technological developments are proposed to clarify their role for the future design of EVA procedures.     

EVA 2000: a European/Russian space suit concept

For the European manned space activities an EVA space suit system was being developed in the frame of the Hermes Space Vehicle Programme of the European Space Agency (ESA). The space suit was to serve the needs for all relevant extravehicular activities for the Hermes Columbus operations planned to begin in 2004. For the present Russian manned space programme the relevant EVAs are performed by the Orlan-DMA semi-rigid space suit. The origin of its development reaches back to the 1970s and has since been adapted to cover the needs for extravehicular activities on Salyut and MIR until today. The latest modification of the space suit, which guaranteed its completely self-contained operation, was made in 1988. However, Russian specialists considered it necessary to start developing an EVA space suit of a new generation, which would have improved performance and would cover the needs by the turn of the century and into the beginning of the next century. Potentially these two suit developments could have a lot in common based on similarities in present concepts. As future manned space activities become more and more an international effort, a safe and reliable interoperability of the different space suit systems is required. Based on the results of the Munich Minister Conference in 1991, the European Space Agency and the Russian Space Agency agreed to initiate a requirements analysis and conceptual design study to determine the feasibility of a joint space suit development, EVA 2000. The design philosophy for the EVA 2000 study was oriented on a space suit system design of: space suit commonality and interoperability; increased crew productivity and safety; increase in useful life and reduced maintainability; reduced development and production cost. The EVA 2000 feasibility study was performed in 1992, and with the positive conclusions for EVA 2000, this approach became the new joint European Russian EVA Suit 2000 Development Programme. This paper gives an overview of the results of the feasibility study and presents the joint requirements and the proposed design concept of a jointly developed European Russian space suit.     

Biomedical problems of EVA support during manned space flight to Mars

Current projects of manned missions to Mars are aimed to their realization in the second-third decades of this century. The purpose of this paper is to determine and review the main biomedical problems, that require a first and foremost decision for safety support of extravehicular activity (EVA) carried out by crewmembers of the Mars expedition. To a number of such problems the authors of the paper attribute a creation of adequate EVA equipment intended, first, for assembly of interplanetary spacecraft on the Earth orbit, performance of maintenance operations and scientific researches on the external surface of spacecraft during interplanetary flight and, secondly, for work on the Mars surface. New generation of space suits with low weight, high mobility and acceptable risk of decompression sickness must be as a central component of EVA equipment. The program for preparation to a Mars expedition also has to include special investigations in order to design the means and methods for a reliable protection of crew against space radiation, to elaborate the approach to medical monitoring and primary medical care during autonomous space mission, to maintain good health condition of crewmembers during EVA under the Mars gravity (0.38 g) after super long-term flight in weightlessness.     

The extravehicular mobility unit: A review of environment, requirements, and design changes in the US spacesuit

Requirements are rarely static, and are ever more likely to evolve as the development time of a system stretches out and its service life increases. In this paper, we discuss the evolution of requirements for the US spacesuit, the extravehicular mobility unit (EMU), as a case study to highlight the need for flexibility in system design. We explore one fundamental environmental change, using the Space Shuttle EMU aboard the International Space Station, and the resulting EMU requirement and design changes. The EMU, like other complex systems, faces considerable uncertainty during its service life. Changes in the technical, political, or economic environment cause changes in requirements, which in turn necessitate design modifications or upgrades. We make the case that flexibility is a key attribute that needs to be embedded in the design of long-lived, complex systems to enable them to efficiently meet the inevitability of changing requirements after they have been fielded.