Venus Interior Structure and Dynamics

No two rocky bodies offer a better laboratory for exploring the conditions controlling interior dynamics than Venus and Earth. Their similarities in size, density, distance from the sun, and young surfaces would suggest comparable interior dynamics. Although the two planets exhibit some of the same processes, Venus lacks Earth’s dominant process for losing heat and cycling volatiles between the interior and the surface and atmosphere: plate tectonics. One commonality is the size and number of mantle plume features which are inferred to be active today and arise at the core mantle boundary. Such mantle plumes require heat loss from the core, yet Venus lacks a measurable interior dynamo. There is evidence for plume-induced subduction on Venus, but no apparent mosaic of moving plates. Absent plate tectonics, one essential question for interior dynamics is how did Venus obtain its young resurfacing age? Via catastrophic or equilibrium processes? Related questions are how does it lose heat via past periods of plate tectonics, has it always had a stagnant lid, or might it have an entirely different mode of heat loss? Although there has been no mission dedicated to surface and interior processes since the Magellan mission in 1990, near infrared surface emissivity data that provides information on the iron content of the surface mineralogy was obtained fortuitously from Venus Express. These data imply both the presence of continental-like crust, and thus formation in the presence of water, and recent volcanism at mantle hotspots. In addition, the study of interior dynamics for both Earth and exoplanets has led to new insights on the conditions required to initiate subduction and develop plate tectonics, including the possible role of high temperature lithosphere, and a renewed drive to reveal why Venus and Earth differ. Here we review current data that constrains the interior dynamics of Venus, new insights into its interior dynamics, and the data needed to resolve key questions.     

Subsurface Water Oceans on Icy Satellites: Chemical Composition and Exchange Processes

The state of knowledge about the structure and composition of icy satellite interiors has been significantly extended by combining direct measurements from spacecraft, laboratory experiments, and theoretical modeling. The existence of potentially habitable liquid water reservoirs on icy satellites is dependent on the radiogenic heating of the rock component, additional contributions such as the dissipation of tidal energy, the efficiency of heat transfer to the surface, and the presence of substances that deplete the freezing point of liquid water. This review summarizes the chemical evolution of subsurface liquid water oceans, taking into account a number of chemical processes occuring in aqueous environments and partly related to material exchange with the deep interior. Of interest are processes occuring at the transitions from the liquid water layer to the ice layers above and below, involving the possible formation of clathrate hydrates and high-pressure ices on large icy satellites. In contrast, water-rock exchange is important for the chemical evolution of the liquid water layer if the latter is in contact with ocean floor rock on small satellites. The composition of oceanic floor deposits depends on ambient physical conditions and ocean chemistry, and their evolutions through time. In turn, physical properties of the ocean floor affect the circulation of oceanic water and related thermal effects due to tidally-induced porous flow and aqueous alteration of ocean floor rock.     

Chemical Composition of Icy Satellite Surfaces

Much of our knowledge of planetary surface composition is derived from remote sensing over the ultraviolet through infrared wavelength ranges. Telescopic observations and, in the past few decades, spacecraft mission observations have led to the discovery of many surface materials, from rock-forming minerals to water ice to exotic volatiles and organic compounds. Identifying surface materials and mapping their distributions allows us to constrain interior processes such as cryovolcanism and aqueous geochemistry. The recent progress in understanding of icy satellite surface composition has been aided by the evolving capabilities of spacecraft missions, advances in detector technology, and laboratory studies of candidate surface compounds. Pioneers 10 and 11, Voyagers I and II, Galileo, Cassini and the New Horizons mission have all made significant contributions. Dalton (Space Sci. Rev., 2010, this issue) summarizes the major constituents found or inferred to exist on the surfaces of the icy satellites (cf. Table 1 from Dalton, Space Sci. Rev., 2010, this issue), and the spectral coverage and resolution of many of the spacecraft instruments that have revolutionized our understanding (cf. Table 2 from Dalton, Space Sci. Rev., 2010, this issue). While much has been gained from these missions, telescopic observations also continue to provide important constraints on surface compositions, especially for those bodies that have not yet been visited by spacecraft, such as Kuiper Belt Objects (KBOs), trans-Neptunian Objects (TNOs), Centaurs, the classical planet Pluto and its moon, Charon. In this chapter, we will discuss the major satellites of the outer solar system, the materials believed to make up their surfaces, and the history of some of these discoveries. Formation scenarios and subsequent evolution will be described, with particular attention to the processes that drive surface chemistry and exchange with interiors. Major similarities and differences between the satellites are discussed, with an eye toward elucidating processes operating throughout the outer solar system. Finally we discuss the outermost satellites and other bodies, and summarize knowledge of their composition. Much of this review is likely to change in the near future with ongoing and planned outer planet missions, adding to the sense of excitement and discovery associated with our exploration of our planetary neighborhood.     

Notes on Magnetohydrodynamics of Magnetic Reconnection in Turbulent Media

Astrophysical fluids have very large Reynolds numbers and therefore turbulence is their natural state. Magnetic reconnection is an important process in many astrophysical plasmas, which allows restructuring of magnetic fields and conversion of stored magnetic energy into heat and kinetic energy. Turbulence is known to dramatically change different transport processes and therefore it is not unexpected that turbulence can alter the dynamics of magnetic field lines within the reconnection process. We shall review the interaction between turbulence and reconnection at different scales, showing how a state of turbulent reconnection is natural in astrophysical plasmas, with implications for a range of phenomena across astrophysics. We consider the process of magnetic reconnection that is fast in magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) limit and discuss how turbulence—both externally driven and generated in the reconnecting system—can make reconnection independent on the microphysical properties of plasmas. We will also show how relaxation theory can be used to calculate the energy dissipated in turbulent reconnecting fields. As well as heating the plasma, the energy dissipated by turbulent reconnection may cause acceleration of non-thermal particles, which is briefly discussed here.     

Planetesimals and Satellitesimals: Formation of the Satellite Systems

The origin of the regular satellites ties directly to planetary formation in that the satellites form in gas and dust disks around the giant planets and may be viewed as mini-solar systems, involving a number of closely related underlying physical processes. The regular satellites of Jupiter and Saturn share a number of remarkable similarities that taken together make a compelling case for a deep-seated order and structure governing their origin. Furthermore, the similarities in the mass ratio of the largest satellites to their primaries, the specific angular momenta, and the bulk compositions of the two satellite systems are significant and in need of explanation. Yet, the differences are also striking. We advance a common framework for the origin of the regular satellites of Jupiter and Saturn and discuss the accretion of satellites in gaseous, circumplanetary disks. Following giant planet formation, planetesimals in the planet’s feeding zone undergo a brief period of intense collisional grinding. Mass delivery to the circumplanetary disk via ablation of planetesimal fragments has implications for a host of satellite observations, tying the history of planetesimals to that of satellitesimals and ultimately that of the satellites themselves. By contrast, irregular satellites are objects captured during the final stages of planetary formation or the early evolution of the Solar System; their distinct origin is reflected in their physical properties, which has implications for the subsequent evolution of the satellites systems.     

1. Transport of Mass,Momentum and Energy in Planetary Magnetodisc Regions

The rapid rotation of the gas giant planets, Jupiter and Saturn, leads to the formation of magnetodisc regions in their magnetospheric environments. In these regions, relatively cold plasma is confined towards the equatorial regions, and the magnetic field generated by the azimuthal (ring) current adds to the planetary dipole, forming radially distended field lines near the equatorial plane. The ensuing force balance in the equatorial magnetodisc is strongly influenced by centrifugal stress and by the thermal pressure of hot ion populations, whose thermal energy is large compared to the magnitude of their centrifugal potential energy. The sources of plasma for the Jovian and Kronian magnetospheres are the respective satellites Io (a volcanic moon) and Enceladus (an icy moon). The plasma produced by these sources is globally transported outwards through the respective magnetosphere, and ultimately lost from the system. One of the most studied mechanisms for this transport is flux tube interchange, a plasma instability which displaces mass but does not displace magnetic flux—an important observational constraint for any transport process. Pressure anisotropy is likely to play a role in the loss of plasma from these magnetospheres. This is especially the case for the Jovian system, which can harbour strong parallel pressures at the equatorial segments of rotating, expanding flux tubes, leading to these regions becoming unstable, blowing open and releasing their plasma. Plasma mass loss is also associated with magnetic reconnection events in the magnetotail regions. In this overview, we summarise some important observational and theoretical concepts associated with the production and transport of plasma in giant planet magnetodiscs. We begin by considering aspects of force balance in these systems, and their coupling with the ionospheres of their parent planets. We then describe the role of the interaction between neutral and ionized species, and how it determines the rate at which plasma mass and momentum are added to the magnetodisc. Following this, we describe the observational properties of plasma injections, and the consequent implications for the nature of global plasma transport and magnetodisc stability. The theory of the flux tube interchange instability is reviewed, and the influences of gravity and magnetic curvature on the instability are described. The interaction between simulated interchange plasma structures and Saturn’s moon Titan is discussed, and its relationship to observed periodic phenomena at Saturn is described. Finally, the observation, generation and evolution of plasma waves associated with mass loading in the magnetodisc regions is reviewed.     

Atmospheric/Exospheric Characteristics of Icy Satellites

The atmospheres/exospheres of icy satellites greatly vary from one to the next in terms of density, composition, structure or steadiness. Titan is the only icy satellite with a dense atmosphere comparable in many ways to that of the Earth’s atmosphere. Titan’s atmosphere prevents the surface from direct interaction with the plasma environment, but gives rise to Earth-like exchanges of energy, matter and momentum. The atmospheres of other satellites are tenuous. Enceladus’ atmosphere manifests itself in a large water vapor plume emanating from surface cracks near the south pole. Io’s SO₂ atmosphere originates from volcanoes. Europa’s tenuous O₂ atmosphere is produced by intense radiation bombardment. This chapter reviews the characteristics of the atmospheres of Titan, Enceladus, Io and Europa based on observations.     

Thermal radiation from magnetized neutron stars

Surface thermal emission has been detected byROSAT from four nearby young neutron stars. Assuming black body emission, the significant pulsations of the observed light curves can be interpreted as due to large surface temperature differences produced by the effect of the crustal magnetic field on the flow of heat from the hot interior toward the cooler surface. However, the energy dependence of the modulation observed in Geminga is incompatible with blackbody emission: this effect will give us a strong constraint on models of the neutron star surface.     

Origin, Internal Structure and Evolution of 4 Vesta

Asteroid 4 Vesta is the only preserved intact example of a large, differentiated protoplanet like those believed to be the building blocks of terrestrial planet accretion. Vesta accreted rapidly from the solar nebula in the inner asteroid belt and likely melted due to heat released due to the decay of ²⁶Al. Analyses of meteorites from the howardite-eucrite-diogenite (HED) suite, which have been both spectroscopically and dynamically linked to Vesta, lead to a model of the asteroid with a basaltic crust that overlies a depleted peridotitic mantle and an iron core. Vesta??s crust may become more mafic with depth and might have been intruded by plutons arising from mantle melting. Constraints on the asteroid??s moments of inertia from the long-wavelength gravity field, pole position and rotation, informed by bulk composition estimates, allow tradeoffs between mantle density and core size; cores of up to half the planetary radius can be consistent with plausible mantle compositions. The asteroid??s present surface is expected to consist of widespread volcanic terrain, modified extensively by impacts that exposed the underlying crust or possibly the mantle. Hemispheric heterogeneity has been observed by poorly resolved imaging of the surface that suggests the possibility of a physiographic dichotomy as occurs on other terrestrial planets. Vesta might have had an early magma ocean but details of the early thermal structure are far from clear owing to model uncertainties and paradoxical observations from the HEDs. Petrological analysis of the eucrites coupled with thermal evolution modeling recognizes two possible mechanisms of silicate-metal differentiation leading to the formation of the basaltic achondrites: equilibrium partial melting or crystallization of residual liquid from the cooling magma ocean. A firmer understanding the plethora of complex physical and chemical processes that contribute to melting and crystallization will ultimately be required to distinguish among these possibilities. The most prominent physiographic feature on Vesta is the massive south polar basin, whose formation likely re-oriented the body axis of the asteroid??s rotation. The large impact represents the likely major mechanism of ejection of fragments that became the HEDs. Observations from the Dawn mission hold the promise of revolutionizing our understanding of 4 Vesta, and by extension, the nature of collisional, melting and differentiation processes in the nascent solar system.     

Nature's efficient energy production, storage, and data processing

Converting the solar energy received on the surface of the Earth has not been practical with heat engines because of the low density of this energy. On a clear bright day in the summer, the sun generally delivers less than 80 W per square foot. Also, heat engines are prohibited from exceeding the Carnot-cycle efficiency limit. On the other hand, plants perform their energy conversion electrochemically, and, hence, are not limited by the Carnot-cycle. They use solar energy to produce useful fuels that range from corn-cobs and maple syrup to pitch and firewood. However, they have an extremely complicated process control that uses blue and red parts of the visible solar spectrum to extract hydrogen from water and carbon from carbon dioxide to make hydrocarbons. They do not need precious-metal catalysts; however they run complex data processing programs in which stored instructions control electrochemical reactions and also cause growth and production of needed products to occur when needed.     

Magnetic Fields in Massive Stars, Their Winds, and Their Nebulae

Massive stars are crucial building blocks of galaxies and the universe, as production sites of heavy elements and as stirring agents and energy providers through stellar winds and supernovae. The field of magnetic massive stars has seen tremendous progress in recent years. Different perspectives—ranging from direct field measurements over dynamo theory and stellar evolution to colliding winds and the stellar environment—fruitfully combine into a most interesting and still evolving overall picture, which we attempt to review here. Zeeman signatures leave no doubt that at least some O- and early B-type stars have a surface magnetic field. Indirect evidence, especially non-thermal radio emission from colliding winds, suggests many more. The emerging picture for massive stars shows similarities with results from intermediate mass stars, for which much more data are available. Observations are often compatible with a dipole or low order multi-pole field of about 1 kG (O-stars) or 300 G to 30?kG (Ap/Bp stars). Weak and unordered fields have been detected in the O-star ζ Ori A and in Vega, the first normal A-type star with a magnetic field. Theory offers essentially two explanations for the origin of the observed surface fields: fossil fields, particularly for strong and ordered fields, or different dynamo mechanisms, preferentially for less ordered fields. Numerical simulations yield the first concrete stable (fossil) field configuration, but give contradictory results as to whether dynamo action in the radiative envelope of massive main sequence stars is possible. Internal magnetic fields, which may not even show up at the stellar surface, affect stellar evolution as they lead to a more uniform rotation, with more slowly rotating cores and faster surface rotation. Surface metallicities may become enhanced, thus affecting the mass-loss rates.     

电动力缆绳离轨系统中绳索建模研究

 空间碎片对在轨运行航天器的安全构成重大威胁,使废弃卫星脱离原轨道进入大气层烧毁是减少空间碎片的有效途径。利用导电缆绳与地磁场相互作用产生的洛仑兹力使卫星特别是低地球轨道卫星的轨道高度快速衰减是一种很有应用前景的离轨方式。在研究电动力缆绳离轨的刚性杆模型基础上,建立了更符合电动力缆绳特性的柔索模型,并对刚性杆模型和柔索模型进行仿真。结果表明柔索模型能更精确地体现电动力缆绳的性质。     

飞机机翼表面霜状冰结冰过程的数值模拟

提出了一种处理结冰后结冰表面固壁区域移动的移动边界技术,结合欧拉坐标系下空气-过冷水滴两相流动控制方程的计算,对霜状冰的结冰过程进行了数值模拟,得到了NACA0012机翼在0°和4°攻角下机翼表面结冰后形成的冰形,与文献中的实验数据对比,表明本文的方法是可行和有效的。      

Magnetic energy release near accreting black holes

The observed non-thermal emission from accreting compact objects is often understood in terms of the expected magnetic activity of accretion disks. This review discusses the constraints on this view point that can be obtained from, principally, the X-ray spectra and the X-ray variability of black hole candidates.Furthermore, the traditional view of an accretion disk corona, put forward as the source of the non-thermal emission, analogous to the solar corona is shown to be wrong on a few important points. Firstly, the density in the equilibrium accretion disk corona is extremely low. A reasonable plasma density is retained by pair production processes similar to those existing in the pulsar magnetosphere. Secondly, the dominant resistivity in the accretion the disk on the current carrying electrons.     

Energy release in stellar magnetospheres

The interaction of a stellar magnetosphere with a thin accretion disk is considered. Specifically, I consider a model in which (1) the accretion disk is magnetically linked to the star over a large range of radii and (2) the magnetic diffusivity of the disk is sufficiently small that there is little slippage of field lines within the disk on the rotation time scale. In this case the magnetic energy built up as a result of differential rotation between the star and the disk is released in quasi-periodic reconnection events occuring in the magnetosphere (Aly and Kuijpers 1990). The radial transport of magnetic flux in such an accretion disk is considered. It is show that the magnetic flux distribution is stationary on the accretion time scale, provided the time average of the radial component of the field just above the disk vanishes. A simple model of the time-dependent structure of the magnetosphere is presented. It is shown that energy release in the magnetosphere must take place for (differential) rotation angles less than about 3 radians. The magnetic flux distribution in the disk depends on the precise value of the rotation angle.     

基于数值模拟的NSDBD等离子体激励器防冰特性

飞行器表面在一定气象条件下会产生积冰,积冰会使飞行器气动性能下降,是危害飞行安全的重要因素之一。常见的气热及电热防冰系统已经广泛运用于现有飞行器上。近些年,在纳秒脉冲阻挡介质放电（NSDBD）等离子体激励器的相关研究中发现NSDBD等离子体激励器可对周围流场进行快速加热,考虑到这种热效应可能作为飞机防冰的一种新方式。本文用数值方法对NSDBD等离子体激励器防冰特性开展了研究。首先,建立了基于Messinger模型的积冰模型,对典型积冰条件进行了验证计算;其次,耦合唯象学等离子体模型与非定常雷诺平均Navier-Stokes方程,计算等离子体对空气流场的影响;最后,将NSDBD等离子体激励器布置在NACA0012翼型前缘防冰区,结合积冰模型与唯象学等离子模型,对其防冰特性进行了研究。计算结果表明等离子体加热的热气流会覆盖在翼型表面防冰区。在相同的霜冰条件下,开启等离子体激励器时机翼前缘没有出现积冰,说明等离体子激励器应用于机翼防冰是有效的。针对不同的激励器参数对防冰特性的影响规律进行了研究,总体上防冰效果与峰值电压、激励器频率有关,从防冰效果和能耗方面考量,在给定计算条件下,存在最优电压值和最优激励器频率值。激励器分布方式对防冰特性的影响与其具体流场有关,需要具体分析。     

Fast Plasma Processes in Active Galactic Nuclei

The physics of active galactic nuclei (AGN) and related objects is one of the most actively pursued areas in astrophysics. Their large luminosities over the entire electromagnetic spectrum combined with extremely short-time variability has stimulated a large number of astrophysicists to propose rather unconventional ideas. After a simplistic review of the early work on AGN, a case is made for the important role of some of the nonlinear plasma processes in the generation of the nonthermal continuum as well as its interaction with the plasma surrounding the central source in the form of accretion disks and emission line regions. These plasma processes are fast, as they operate on characteristic time scales much shorter than the single particle processes do. Due to their collective nature. the efficiencies of scattering, absorption and emission increase many fold. In particular, it is shown how the parametric instabilities cause anomalous absorption and scattering and in turn heat the plasma to much higher temperatures than could be achieved through particle collisions. A combination of the stimulated Raman and Compton scattering processes is shown to be able to account for the major part of the spectrum of 3C273, as an example. An attempt is made to address simultaneously the questions of acceleration of particles and their radiation through the concerted action of a sequence of plasma processes. This review ends with some reflections on future research directions.     

Reaction Networks for Interstellar Chemical Modelling: Improvements and Challenges

We survey the current situation regarding chemical modelling of the synthesis of molecules in the interstellar medium. The present state of knowledge concerning the rate coefficients and their uncertainties for the major gas-phase processes—ion-neutral reactions, neutral-neutral reactions, radiative association, and dissociative recombination—is reviewed. Emphasis is placed on those key reactions that have been identified, by sensitivity analyses, as ‘crucial’ in determining the predicted abundances of the species observed in the interstellar medium. These sensitivity analyses have been carried out for gas-phase models of three representative, molecule-rich, astronomical sources: the cold dense molecular clouds TMC-1 and L134N, and the expanding circumstellar envelope IRC +10216. Our review has led to the proposal of new values and uncertainties for the rate coefficients of many of the key reactions. The impact of these new data on the predicted abundances in TMC-1 and L134N is reported. Interstellar dust particles also influence the observed abundances of molecules in the interstellar medium. Their role is included in gas-grain, as distinct from gas-phase only, models. We review the methods for incorporating both accretion onto, and reactions on, the surfaces of grains in such models, as well as describing some recent experimental efforts to simulate and examine relevant processes in the laboratory. These efforts include experiments on the surface-catalyzed recombination of hydrogen atoms, on chemical processing on and in the ices that are known to exist on the surface of interstellar grains, and on desorption processes, which may enable species formed on grains to return to the gas-phase.     

三维机翼结冰模拟

针对机翼结冰问题,利用欧拉法求解空气水滴两相流流场,通过Fluent软件用户自定义函数功能编程求解三维机翼表面水滴局部收集系数以及结冰情况.在计算中.将水溢流方向沿机翼弦向和展向分解,以此对Messinger结冰热力学模型进行改进,使之更符合三维情况,并在此基础上进行三维传质传热分析;修正传统的二维表面对流换热系数求解...     

计入离心力影响的直升机旋翼翼型结冰数值模拟

建立了一套计入离心力影响的直升机旋翼翼型结冰的数值模拟方法.首先生成围绕翼型的贴体正交网格,然后用Navier-Stokes（N-S）方程求解黏性绕流流场.在此基础上,利用拉格朗日法建立水滴运动方程.其中,为提高计算效率,提出了结合位移矢量的水滴所处单元寻觅方法.最后,结合桨叶工作特点,发展了一种计入离心力影响的三维结冰模型.通过与桨叶结冰实验的对比,验证了本文结冰预测方法的可靠性.对比常规结冰模型,桨叶结冰量减少22.3%;若考虑桨叶的挥舞运动影响,桨叶结冰量进一步减少,表明了离心力及桨叶运动在结冰数值模拟中的重要性.通过不同剖面间的结冰量和冰形对比,分析并获得了桨叶结冰特征.结果表明离心力的影响程度随径向位移的增加而增加,下翼面结冰量随挥舞角的增加而减少.