Aiding astronomy in developing nations: Japanese ODA

In order to promote education and research in developing nations, the Government of Japan has been providing developing nations with high-grade equipment under the framework of the Official Development Assistance (ODA) cooperation programme since 1982. Under this successful cooperation programme, 24 astronomical instruments have been donated to 19 developing nations up to the end of the Japanese fiscal year 2003. The instruments donated included university-level reflecting telescopes, as well as modern planetaria used for educational purposes, together with various accessories. This paper reports on a continuation of the previous ODA donations and the subsequent follow-up programmes provided with the assistance of the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and the cooperation with the Programme on Space Applications of the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (OOSA). It also describes how aid applications should be pursued.     

Outer space exploitability: International law and developing nations

This article outlines the principles upon which international space law is based. Space law has been successful so far in benefiting the developing countries without hampering the spacefaring nations. The principal treaty provisions that are of special interest to developing nations are discussed, and issues associated with remote sensing, communications and environmental harms are examined in detail. Since 1967 there has been a sharp change in the focus of legal concern towards ‘taking into account the particular needs of developing countries’, a principle that will be central to arrangements for the equitable sharing of the benefits of exploiting the space environment and its natural resources.     

Space technology transfer: Spin-off cases from Japan

Government organizations have to justify high expenditure during periods of financial crisis such as the one we are experiencing today. Space agencies have attempted to increase the returns on their investments in space missions by encouraging the commercial use of advanced technologies. This paper describes two technology transfer (TT) cases promoted by JAXA, in order to identify the organizational models and determinants of TT. The development of a TT process from space to Earth not only benefits the aerospace industry but also the network of national companies. The aim of the paper is to investigate who the actors are and the nature of their role, as well as the determinants of the TT process in the Japanese space sector. The case studies confirm the typical path of transfer as ‘Earth–space–Earth’.     

Orbital remote sensing: Space technology applications in South-east Asia

The changing context of space remote sensing applications is described in terms of evolving needs and capabilities in South-east Asia and in terms of recent policy decisions in spacefaring nations. Emphasis is placed on the need for a technology which allows the monitoring of, eg the exploitation and degradation of natural resources, crop development, climatic effects and the like. The implications of policy adjustments in the US LANDSAT programme, including its proposed commercialization, are discussed, and the potential role of other existing and future satellites is reviewed.     

Space insurance : Comments from an observer

The space insurance industry has suffered serious financual setbacks in recent years. These setbacks, amounting to a net cash outflow of hundreds of millions of dollars, have resulted in substantial increases in insurance rates and the withdrawal of a number of firms from the launch insurance market. After two decades of commerial space activity a number of questions may be raised: What has been learned from the experience to date? What are the causes of the poor performance of the space insurance industry? What can be done to improve performance? What are the likely prospects of the insurance industry and the likely impacts on the communications satellite industry? In order to answer these questions several examples are considered and analytic approaches discussed. The implications of mission modes, failure/recovery paths and multiple correlated payloads are considered, and analytic approaches based upon computer simulation techniques are described which are required to understand the complex insurance environment and the setting of policies and rate structures.     

Space technology transfer policies: Learning from scientific satellite case studies

The paper reports research into the transfer of technology typically used in the construction of scientific satellites. Four case studies are analyzed to clarify some basic mechanisms of the transfer of space technology to the industrial system. The paper finds that the technologies analyzed in the construction of satellites for the most part stem from the integration of technical processes already known in various industrial sectors; the use of these processes in space involves their substantial strengthening and upgrading in terms of performance; and this upgrading permits them to return to industrial sectors that use the technological advances acquired for coping with complex problems in the space sector. This research has helped validate some of the determinants of technology transfer already noted in the literature, while increasing the number and content of these. Useful indications emerge for policy makers and agents involved in technology transfer programs.     

Space exploration policy: Towards an operational vision

This article examines the historical and social context of space exploration policy. It seeks to reconcile a contradiction between the visionary grandeur of space and public perceptions of space exploration as the province of a narrowly-focused political interest group. The author argues that perceptions of the space age are artificially restricted by dating its origins to Sputnik and Apollo and allowing it to be dominated by science and technology objectives devoid of a more encompassing social framework. Guiding principles for developing space exploration activities in a broader conceptual and operational framework are offered.     

Space technology in the third world : Commercialization and the spread of ballistic missiles

The recent enthusiastic initiatives in the USA to commercialize space activities are also likely to facilitate and accelerate Third World ventures in space. This article outlines the history of Third World space activities and points to the danger that these nations will use satellite launch technology for military applications. Competitive economic and political pressures are aiding the migration of older missile technology to Third World Nations. The author argues for the establishment of an International Missile Technology Regime, which would limit the transfer of space launch technology to nations which are in full compliance with the 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.     

Space technology for humanity: A profile for the coming 50 years

Applications of space technology have provided remarkable benefits for humanity since the dawn of the Space Age and India presents an excellent example of the way space is able to benefit developing countries in areas as divergent as communications, education, disaster management, health-care, environmental monitoring, agriculture, water management and mapping. Nevertheless access to these benefits remains inequitable, with a large number of mainly developing countries and poorer sections of society not yet able to share in them. In addition, the world faces serious global challenges in the coming 50 years. The author discusses these challenges and the way they can be met using space technology, as well as ways of making space more inclusive. Key will be creating multilateral systems of systems. Some reform of laws and policies will also be needed.     

Space nuclear power: technology, policy, and risk considerations in human missions to Mars

There is a large discrepancy between potential needs for nuclear propulsion and power systems for the human exploration of Mars and the current status of R&D funding, public opinion, and governmental support for these technologies. Mission planners and spacecraft designers, energized by the recent claims of possible discovery of life on Mars and responding to increased public interest in the human exploration of Mars, frequently propose nuclear reactors and radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) for interplanetary spacecraft propulsion and for power supply on the surface of Mars. These plans and designs typically assume that reactors will be available "on-the-shelf," and do not take the extensive R&D costs required to develop such reactors into consideration. However, it is likely that current U.S. policies, if unchanged, will prohibit the launch of nuclear reactors and large RTGs in response to a perceived risk by the public.     

Space technology as a factor of international stabilization and destabilization

Control of space-related assets represents a factor of civilian as well as military power. If countries seek unilateral access to space technology for the purpose of aggression against others, international peace and stability are at risk. The author discusses the role of the non-proliferation regime for space technology within an integrated strategy for the promotion of international security and development. He suggests that under certain conditions, allowing the further spread of the use of space-based capabilities can contribute to the stabilization of regional conflict situations. However, certain safeguards, controls and restraints should be required from potential new space powers.     

A systematic review of the Space technology transfer literature: Research synthesis and emerging gaps

In order to justify high expenditure during this period of financial crisis, Space Agencies have attempted to increase the returns on their investments in Space missions by encouraging the commercial use of advanced technologies. The development of a technology transfer process from Space to Earth not only benefits the Aerospace industry but also the network of national companies. Technology transfer has been shown to stimulate innovation in business and commerce, support economic growth and provide a return on public investment in research and development (R&D). The aim of this paper is to systematically review the Space technology transfer literature and to suggest directions for future research. The range of research and studies in the literature on this topic requires a systematic review to summarize the results in an unbiased and balanced manner and to interpret these in a way that highlights the research gaps. This article presents an overview of the dominant thinking (explicit in selected articles from 1995 to present), indicating the problems of analysis, research gaps and a future research program.     

即将建成的“宇宙城堡”——国际空间站

经过十多年的建造,世界上投入资金最大、参与国家最多、建造周期最长、技术水平最高、应用范围最广的国际空间站于2011年2月基本建成。它包含13个增压舱,其中8个是用于科学实验和航天员居住,1个为空间站提供初始推进、姿控、通信和储存,4个用于对接。另外,还装有7段桁架结构、4对巨型太阳能电池阵、1个移动服务系统、舱外仪器设     

美国的太空千里马--「半人马座」上面级

现代社会的一大进步是信息交流速度越来越快。人们在通话、上网、看电视时,可能很少会想到这其中有通信卫星的功劳,更想不到是谁把卫星送到了离地球很远的轨道。另外,人类发射探测器探索太空、研究宇宙的过程也离不开运载工具的帮助。在各种航天运输工具中,有一种是专门用...