Space tourism, private spaceflight and the law: Key aspects

The arrival of ‘space tourism’, or more appropriately ‘private spaceflight’, requires the law of outer space to change and adapt to this revolutionary development, as deriving precisely from the principled private participation in these activities. After defining the proper concepts, this paper discusses key legal aspects of authorisation and supervision, liability and registration, and how they reflect and impact on space tourism. Key legal aspects related to certification of craft, crew and passengers, while not yet much articulated at the international level will also be touched upon precisely in order to demonstrate that the law could well be driven first and foremost by national legislative interests on a domestic level, before (possibly) reaching the level of international law. The possible use of air law or even adventure tourism law to regulate relevant activities is also touched on.     

The aerospace plane : Its legal and political future

Recent progress in the development of an aerospace plane calls for consideration of an applicable legal regime. Since the aerospace plane is by definition a hybrid vehicle, it is unclear whether international air space law or outer space law should be applied to it. This article outlines the practical considerations affecting the debate and compares the existing legal principles and rules that might be applied. The author argues that a new allocative theory, which would take account of the purposes of a hybrid vehicle and its actual effects, is needed to determine whether air space law or outer space law should be applied to it.     

The legal regime for private space tourism activities—An overview

“Space tourism” denotes any commercial activity that offers customers direct or indirect experience with space travel. Various models for space tourism activities exist including the use of an aircraft and/or spacecraft. The paper surveys some of the most important legal aspects relevant to space tourism activities, such as, the delimitation of airspace and outer space, the applicable legal regime and the definition of aircraft and space object, authorization, registration, liability, as well as the legal status of space tourists.     

The need for air space and outer space demarcation

This paper argues the need now to consider defining a vertical or spatial boundary between air space and outer space, which in turn effectively means defining the extent of air law and space law. Technology changes in aircraft, spacecraft, positioning systems and remote sensing, combined with the growth in the number of spacefaring nations, make the situation different from the early days of the space era when it was assumed that a boundary would be defined at a future indeterminate date. This article describes the background to the debates and the growing pressures of the questions of sovereignty concerning air and space law, and argues the case for a vertical or spatial boundary rather than a functional one.     

反临近空间高超声速飞行器若干研究进展

为了支撑我国反临近空间高超声速飞行器相关领域的基础研究和工程研制,在分析典型临近空间高超声速目标飞行特性和作战任务剖面的基础上,综述了目标预警探测、轨迹跟踪预测、制导控制方法、拦截攻击策略四个方面的若干研究成果,讨论了每个方面存在的技术难题和可行的解决方案,并建议从天/临/空/地/海体系预警、红外多模复合敏感、可攻击区轨迹预测、直/气复合等先进控制、协同拦截防御等方面给予重点研究。     

Shaping a legal framework for the commercial use of outer space: recommendations and conclusions from Project 2001

Private and commercial activity in outer space still poses challenges to space law and policy. Within ‘Project 2001’—a legal research project by the University of Cologne's Institute of Air and Space Law and the German Aerospace Center (DLR)—six international expert working groups examined international and national laws, in order to identify gaps and, where necessary, propose improvements to the present legal framework for private space activities. The results were presented and discussed at an international colloquium in May 2001 in Cologne, Germany, where final conclusions have been drawn. This report presents a summary of the project's work and main conclusions, which are documented in full in a comprehensive book to be published in May 2002.     

The PCA Rules for dispute settlement in outer space: A significant step forward

Outer space activities have evolved significantly. While they were previously the exclusive domain of a restricted number of states, now thanks to technological advances and the easing of governmental restrictions, space activities are carried out on a much larger scale and involve subjects of both a governmental and non-governmental nature. Furthermore, the commercial uses of outer space are making space business increasingly profitable and attractive to potential investors. As the economic value of outer space activities, as well as the number of space actors grows, it is nearly inevitable that international disputes related to the use of outer space will occur. Until recently, international space law contained little dedicated machinery to settle international outer space-related disputes. This absence significantly weakened the applicability and enforceability of space law and contributed to a climate of uncertainty. In order to address these issues, the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) adopted the Optional Rules for Arbitration of Disputes Relating to Outer Space Activities on 6 December 2011. The PCA Space Rules represent a significant development in the field of space law because they provide a voluntary and binding dispute settlement method accessible to all space actors and modeled on the specific legal and economic characteristics of space activities. This paper describes the genesis of the PCA Space Rules, assesses their content and innovative character, evaluates their possible implications for the settlement of outer space disputes, and argues that they should be positively received by the outer space community.     

基于MOEA/D的三锥体拦截器气动外形优化设计

针对由临近空间拦截器飞行环境变化剧烈导致的热流密度过高等问题,提出一种多目标外形优化设计方法,并针对一种新型三锥体临近空间拦截器外形进行优化设计。首先,建立飞行器的气动、弹道、气动热等多学科分析模型,利用高斯-伪谱法计算拦截弹道,利用桥函数法建立气动模型,并利用Fay-Riddle方法估计气动热流密度。然后,以飞行器航程、总热流量和飞行时间为优化目标,采用基于分解的多目标进化算法(MOEA/D)与伪谱法将该问题转化为一组单目标优化子问题,得到Pareto前沿并进行相关分析。最后,给出一个优于基准值,同时满足性能指标要求的新型外形。结果表明:该优化方法具有可实现性,为未来的飞行器设计提供了新思路。     

面向临近空间目标拦截的预测命中点设计方法

针对基于吸气式高超声速平台的临近空间目标拦截概念方案,考虑由于吸气式动力拦截平台飞行策略与火箭动力拦截弹的区别,导致传统预测命中点设计方法不适用的问题,开展面向吸气式高超声速平台的拦截预测命中点设计方法研究。首先,基于拦截空域最大的原则,结合吸气式动力飞行策略构建高超声速拦截平台的标准弹道族;然后通过将多约束拦截预测命中点设计问题分解为基于航程约束的拦截时间迭代计算问题和满足高度约束的拦截点的高效筛选问题,快速完成预测命中点规划。最后,通过仿真实验说明了提出的面向吸气式高超声速拦截平台预测命中点规划方法的有效性。     

Between heaven and earth: The legal challenges of human space travel

Since the first space object was launched into orbit in 1957, humankind has been engaged in a constant effort to realise ever more ambitious plans for space travel. Probably the single most important element in this ongoing evolution is the development of technology capable of transporting large numbers of passengers into outer space on a commercial basis. Within the foreseeable future, space will no longer be the sole domain of professionally trained astronauts or the exceptionally wealthy.The prospects for both suborbital and orbital private human access to space give rise to some interesting and difficult legal questions. It also opens up an exciting opportunity to develop an adequate system of legal regulation to deal with these activities. The existing international legal regimes covering air and space activities are not well suited to large-scale commercial access to space, largely because they were developed at a time when such activities were not a principal consideration in the mind of the drafters. The lack of legal clarity represents a major challenge and must be addressed as soon as possible, to provide for appropriate standards and further encourage (not discourage) such activities.This article will examine some of the more pressing legal issues associated with the regulation of space transportation of passengers on a commercial basis, seen in the light of Article 1 of the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, which states that the ‘exploration and use of outer space […] shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries […] and shall be the province of all mankind’. An appropriate balance must be found between the commercial and technological opportunities that will arise and the principles upon which the development of international space law have thus far been based.     

发展X-37B空间飞机的背后动因分析

文章通过对X-37B飞行器的飞行试验任务分析,指出了X-37B飞行器不是空天飞机,也不是全球快速打击平台,而是一种低成本太空进入能力的飞行验证器,它的作用定位在空间而不是在空中。通过飞行试验和验证试验,旨在打造一个可重复使用的轨道转移运载器。将美国2010年航天战略的重大调整、国际空间站的运行延期和航天飞机退役等事件结合起来,对X-37B发展的背后动因进行分析,有助于了解美国航天发展的未来趋势。经过动因的详尽分析,指出要特别关注美国航天战略调整的两个重心转向,尤其是两个转向背后的动机。如何正确地认识国际空间站的作用定位,对于审视载人航天的未来发展有重要意义。美国航天战略的调整使载人航天的重心回到近地轨道上。基于中国目前的能力现实,建议中国的载人航天重心放在地球轨道上,做好各种能力的建设,并利用这些能力把地球轨道上的事做得更好。     

临近空间立法问题研究及对技术发展的影响

当前学界关于临近空间的争议焦点主要集中在临近空间是否应当成为法律概念,以及临近空间是否应当成为法律上的独立空间两方面。随着在临近空间的利益冲突愈演愈烈,临近空间应上升成为独立的法律概念。在当前空天划界问题悬而未决的特殊背景下,宜认定其从属于空气空间,赋予领空主权。鉴于当前临近空间国际法规则尚处于空白阶段,应积极引领和推动临近空间国际法规则的制定,倡导设立临近空间的无害通过制度,同时加快发展临近空间技术,不断增强技术实力,为后续临近空间国际法规则制定增加博弈砝码。     

Time is of the essence: making space law more effective

Traditionally, international legal rules have been established through the adoption of treaties by states, and the five space treaties adopted in the 1960s and 1970s are no exception. Accordingly, the recent proposals for overcoming problems related to the management of space activities have often envisioned the conclusion of new treaties, even a general convention, on space law. However, the process of setting norms through international treaties has certain severe weaknesses, ones affecting space law as much as, if not more than, other fields. These include the lamentably common time lag between drafting, adoption, and entry into force of international standards. Even if states manage to agree on certain provisions, by the time accords are implemented, the problems in question may have reached entirely new and different proportions and strategies that made sense when first proposed already represent ‘too little, too late’. This paper ponders the chances of making norms of international space law operative faster as well as the possibility of creating instruments whose provisions can readily accommodate changing conditions.     

变构型跨介质飞行器发展及关键技术分析

变构型跨介质飞行器就是既能满足在水下航行又能满足在空中飞行要求的飞行器,在具备水下航行隐蔽特性的同时也满足在空中飞行的机动性和灵活性要求。变构型跨介质飞行器可以通过改变其翼型结构适用于空气中与水中航行。该飞行器结合了无人机和潜艇的优势,可以实现多次出入水跨介质作业,在军事领域应用于战场关键信息侦察、突防和精确打击,在民用领域应用于海上灾难救援、深海地质探测等。从军事和民用方面分析了变构型跨介质飞行器的优势及用途,总结了国内外变构型跨介质飞行器发展现状,针对性地梳理了关键技术和难点问题,在此基础上提出了技术发展建议,为后续跨介质飞行器研究工作提供支撑。     

变化风场下近空间飞行器机体/发动机一体化飞行力学建模与分析

近空间飞行器飞行包络大、环境变化复杂、参数变化激烈,对其开展飞行控制技术研究工作的首要问题是对此复杂系统基本物理规律准确把握和描述,并依此建立其机理运动模型。针对机体/发动机一体化设计的近空间飞行器,系统地进行了飞行力学分析,并推导了变化风场下近空间飞行器在高超声速条件下的完整的6-自由度12-状态的动力学方程和运动学方程,体现出变化风场的影响和推力矢量的作用。随后,对其在不同条件下的开环控制特性进行了仿真研究,直观表现了系统的快时变、强耦合、强非线性和不确定性等特点。所得结果可用于未来高超声速飞行器轨迹管理、飞行控制等问题的概念设计和仿真研究。     

Balloon-borne air traffic management (ATM) as a precursor to space-based ATM

The International Space University—Balloon Air traffic control Technology Experiment (I-BATE¹) has flown on board two stratospheric balloons and has tracked nearby aircraft by receiving their Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) transmissions. Air traffic worldwide is facing increasing congestion. It is predicted that daily European flight volumes will more than double by 2030 compared to 2009 volumes. ADS-B is an air traffic management system being used to mitigate air traffic congestion. Each aircraft is equipped with both a GPS receiver and an ADS-B transponder. The transponder transmits an equipped aircraft's unique identifier, position, heading, and velocity once per second. The ADS-B transmissions can then be received by ground stations for use in traditional air traffic management. Airspace not monitored by these ground stations or other traditional means remains uncontrolled and poorly monitored. A constellation of space-based ADS-B receivers could close these gaps and provide global air traffic monitoring. By flying an ADS-B receiver on a stratospheric balloon, I-BATE has served as a precursor to a constellation of ADS-B-equipped Earth-orbiting satellites. From the ～30 km balloon altitude, I-BATE tracked aircraft ranging up to 850 km. The experiment has served as a proof of concept for space-based air traffic management and supports a technology readiness level 6 of space-based ADS-B reception.     

临近空间长航时太阳能飞行器动导数特性及机理

为解决现有计算方法无法用于动导数机理分析的问题,通过理论推导得到了一组只需要较少总体气动参数的动导数计算公式。根据此计算公式进行的机理分析表明,临近空间长航时太阳能飞行器的大展弦比气动布局、高巡航升力系数对横航向动导数有直接影响。推导的动导数计算公式可用作此类飞行器动导数计算和分析的简便工具。     

面向飞行器自主导航的铱星/星链星座覆盖性及可见性分析

针对低轨星座机会信号导航中单星座构型和可见星数无法同时满足高精度、高可用性的难题,基于铱星、星链轨道参数,建立了单星座和混合星座模型,探究了各个星座覆盖重数、覆盖率及飞行器对上述星座的可见性。研究结果表明：飞行器可见星数随飞行高度增加而减少,随飞行器最小观测仰角增大而减少,星链和铱星的融合可显著增加纬度60°以上区域可见星数。铱星对全球不同纬度、不同时间具有100%全覆盖;星链目前覆盖区域向两极拓展,对全球覆盖重数最大为56,最小为0,未实现全球不同纬度、全时段100%的覆盖率,但中国区域星链覆盖率均优于美国区域。星链和铱星的混合星座使全球覆盖重数优于10,不同纬度、不同时间覆盖率达到100%,显著优于单星座。     

The ECSL summer course: a European initiative in the field of space law teaching

Mindful of the growing need for and interest in the law of outer space, the European Centre for Space Law (ECSL) has started a summer school on the subject, where European students receive instruction in the basics of space law from internationally renowned professors and legal experts. In this report the ECSL's Secretary, Valérie Kayser describes the aims and content of the first two courses and assesses its impact. Student expectations have been met but there is scope for improving the academic level, especially in the area of teamwork.     

Structured methods for identifying and correcting potential human errors in space operations

Human performance plays a significant role in the development and operation of any complex system, and human errors are significant contributors to degraded performance, incidents, and accidents for technologies as diverse as medical systems, commercial aircraft, offshore oil platforms, nuclear power plants, and space systems. To date, serious accidents attributed to human error have fortunately been rare in space operations. However, as flight rates go up and the duration of space missions increases, the accident rate could increase unless proactive action is taken to identity and correct potential human errors in space operations. The Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (INEEL) has developed and applied structured methods of human error analysis to identify potential human errors, assess their effects on system performance, and develop strategies to prevent the errors or mitigate their consequences. These methods are being applied in NASA-sponsored programs to the domain of commercial aviation, focusing on airplane maintenance and air traffic management. The application of human error analysis to space operations could contribute to minimize the risks associated with human error in the design and operation of future space systems.