The Ice Survey Opportunity of ISO

The instruments on board the Infrared Space Observatory have for the first time allowed a complete low (PHOT, CVF) to medium resolution (SWS) spectroscopic harvest, from 2.5 to 45 μm, of interstellar dust. Amongst the detected solids present in starless molecular clouds surrounding recently born stellar and still embedded objects or products of the chemistry in some mass loss envelopes, the so-called “ice mantles” are of specific interest. They represent an interface between the very refractory carbonaceous and silicates materials that built the first grains with the rich chemistry taking place in the gas phase. Molecules condense, react on ices, are subjected to UV and cosmic ray irradiation at low temperatures, participating efficiently to the evolution toward more complex molecules, being in constant interaction in an ice layer. They also play an important role in the radiative transfer of molecular clouds and strongly affect the gas phase chemistry. ISO results shed light on many other species than H₂O ice. The detection of these van der Waal's solids is mainly performed in absorption. Each ice feature observed by ISO spectrometer is an important species, with abundance in the 10⁻⁴–10⁻⁷ range with respect to H₂. Such high abundances represent a substantial reservoir of matter that, once released later on, replenishes the gas phase and feeds the ladder of molecular complexity. Medium resolution spectroscopy also offers the opportunity to look at individual line profiles of the ice features, and therefore to progressively reveal the interactions taking place in the mantles. This article will give a view on selected results to avoid to overlap with the numerous reviews the reader is invited to consult (e.g. van Dishoeck, in press; Gibb et al., 2004.). Based on observations with ISO, an ESA project with instruments funded by ESA Member States (especially the PI countries: France, Germany, The Netherlands, and the United Kingdom), and with the participation of ISAS and NASA.     

An ISO View on Interstellar and Cometary Ice Chemistry

The ISO-SWS instrument offering a large wavelength coverage and a resolution well adapted to the solid phase has changed our knowledge of the physical-chemical properties of ices in space. The discovery of many new ice features was reported and the comparison with dedicated laboratory experiments allowed the determination of more accurate abundances of major ice components. The presence of CO₂ ice has recently been confirmed with the SWS (Short Wavelength Spectrometer) as a dominant ice component of interstellar grain mantles. The bending mode of CO₂ ice shows a particular triple-peak structure which provides first evidence for extensive ice segregation in the line-of-sight toward massive protostars. A comparison of interstellar and cometary ices using recent ISO data and ground-based measurements has revealed important similarities but also indicated that comets contain, beside pristine interstellar material, admixtures of processed material. The investigation of molecules in interstellar clouds is essential to reveal the link between dust in the interstellar medium and in the Solar System. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The seasonal cycle of water on Mars

A review of the behavior of water in the Mars atmosphere and subsurface is appropriate now that data from the Mariner and Viking spacecraft have been analyzed and discussed for several years following completion of those missions. Observations and analyses pertinent to the seasonal cycle of water vapor in the atmosphere of Mars are reviewed, with attention toward transport of water and the seasonal exchange of water between the atmosphere and various non-atmospheric reservoirs. Possible seasonally-accessible sources and sinks for water include water ice on or within the seasonal and residual polar caps; surface or subsurface ice in the high-latitude regions of the planet; adsorbed or chemically-bound water within the near-surface regolith; or surface or subsurface liquid water. The stability of water within each of these reservoirs is discussed, as are the mechanisms for driving exchange of the water with the atmosphere and the timescales for exchange. Specific conclusions are reached about the distribution of water and the viability of each mechanism as a seasonal reservoir. Discussion is also included of the behaviour of water on longer timescales, driven by the variations in solar forcing due to the quasi-periodic variations of the orbital obliquity. Finally, specific suggestions are made for future observations from spacecraft which would further define or constrain the seasonal cycle of water.     

The Potential of GOCE in Constraining the Structure of the Crust and Lithosphere from Post-Glacial Rebound

Glacial Isostatic Adjustment (GIA) due to Pleistocene glaciation and deglaciation has left clear imprints in the present-day geoid. The solid-earth models that are commonly used in simulating these geoid anomalies usually have the upper layer (crust/lithosphere) elastic. While this is a good approximation for oceanic lithosphere, it is over-simplified for many continental crustal areas, of which some are submerged at continental margins. At many places, these continental areas have a lower crustal zone that has low viscosities. Also at the top of the mantle (asthenosphere) such zones with low viscosities can exist. Modeling results show that, due to their shallowness and due to the laterally non-homogeneous water load, these low-viscosity layers induce discernible signatures in the high-harmonic steady-state components of the geoid. These patchlike patterns have typical length scales ranging from about 100 – 1000 km, and typical magnitudes of 1 cm – 1 m, depending on, a.o., depth and width of the low-viscosity zone, viscosity and shoreline geometry. Complications in correlating GIA modeling results with observed geoid anomalies might arise from uncertainties in isostatic corrections (topography and non-uniform composition of crust and lithosphere) and from other non-GIA related contributions to the observered anomalies. The characteristic forms of the patterns might assist in separating the various contributions to the observed geoid anomalies. This can be illustrated for the Adriatic coast of Italy, where the best fit to the spatial sea-level curve pattern is provided by a combination of GIA and regional plate tectonics. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

V: SEA LEVEL: Benefits of GRACE and GOCE to sea level studies

The recently published Third Assessment Reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change have underlined the scientific interest in, and practical importance of past and potential future sea level changes. Space gravity missions will provide major benefits to the understanding of the past, and, thereby, in the prediction of future, sea level changes in many ways. The proposal for the GOCE mission described well the improvements to be expected from improved gravity field and geoid models in oceanography (for example, in the measurement of the time-averaged, or ‘steady state’, ocean surface circulation and better estimation of ocean transports), in geophysics (in the improvement of geodynamic models for vertical land movements), in geodesy (in positioning of tide gauge data into the same reference frame as altimeter data, and in improvement of altimeter satellite orbits), and possibly in glaciology (in improved knowledge of bedrock topography and ice sheet mass fluxes). GRACE will make many important steps towards these ‘steady state’ aims. However, its main purpose is the provision of oceanographic (and hydrological and meteorological) temporally-varying gravity information, and should in effect function as a global ‘bottom pressure recorder’, providing further insight into the 3-D temporal variation of the ocean circulation, and of the global water budget in general. This paper summaries several of these issues, pointing the way towards improved accuracy of prediction of future sea level change. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Modulation of Cosmic Rays in the Heliosphere From Solar Minimum to Maximum: a Theoretical Perspective

The modulation of galactic cosmic rays in the heliosphere seems to be dominated by four major mechanisms: convection, diffusion, drifts (gradient, curvature and current sheet), and adiabatic energy losses. In this regard the global structure of the solar wind, the heliospheric magnetic field (HMF), the current sheet (HCS), and that of the heliosphere itself play major roles. Individually, the four mechanisms are well understood, but in combination, the complexity increases significantly especially their evolvement with time - as a function of solar activity. The Ulysses observations contributed significantly during the past solar minimum modulation period to establish the relative importance of these major mechanisms, leading to renewed interest in developing more sophisticated numerical models, and in the underlying physics, e.g., what determines the diffusion tensor. With increased solar activity, the relative contributions of the mentioned mechanisms change, but how they change and what causes these changes over an 11-year solar cycle is not well understood. It can therefore be expected that present and forthcoming observations during solar maximum activity will again produce very important insights into the causes of long-term modulation. In this paper the basic theory of solar modulation is reviewed for galactic cosmic rays. The influence of the Ulysses observations on the development of the basic theory and numerical models are discussed, especially those that have challenged the theory and models. Model-based predictions are shown for what might be encountered during the next solar minimum. Lastly, modulation theory and modelling are discussed for periods of maximum solar activity when a global reorganization of the HMF, and the HCS, occurs. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Chemical Composition of Icy Satellite Surfaces

Much of our knowledge of planetary surface composition is derived from remote sensing over the ultraviolet through infrared wavelength ranges. Telescopic observations and, in the past few decades, spacecraft mission observations have led to the discovery of many surface materials, from rock-forming minerals to water ice to exotic volatiles and organic compounds. Identifying surface materials and mapping their distributions allows us to constrain interior processes such as cryovolcanism and aqueous geochemistry. The recent progress in understanding of icy satellite surface composition has been aided by the evolving capabilities of spacecraft missions, advances in detector technology, and laboratory studies of candidate surface compounds. Pioneers 10 and 11, Voyagers I and II, Galileo, Cassini and the New Horizons mission have all made significant contributions. Dalton (Space Sci. Rev., 2010, this issue) summarizes the major constituents found or inferred to exist on the surfaces of the icy satellites (cf. Table 1 from Dalton, Space Sci. Rev., 2010, this issue), and the spectral coverage and resolution of many of the spacecraft instruments that have revolutionized our understanding (cf. Table 2 from Dalton, Space Sci. Rev., 2010, this issue). While much has been gained from these missions, telescopic observations also continue to provide important constraints on surface compositions, especially for those bodies that have not yet been visited by spacecraft, such as Kuiper Belt Objects (KBOs), trans-Neptunian Objects (TNOs), Centaurs, the classical planet Pluto and its moon, Charon. In this chapter, we will discuss the major satellites of the outer solar system, the materials believed to make up their surfaces, and the history of some of these discoveries. Formation scenarios and subsequent evolution will be described, with particular attention to the processes that drive surface chemistry and exchange with interiors. Major similarities and differences between the satellites are discussed, with an eye toward elucidating processes operating throughout the outer solar system. Finally we discuss the outermost satellites and other bodies, and summarize knowledge of their composition. Much of this review is likely to change in the near future with ongoing and planned outer planet missions, adding to the sense of excitement and discovery associated with our exploration of our planetary neighborhood.     

飞机机翼表面霜状冰结冰过程的数值模拟

提出了一种处理结冰后结冰表面固壁区域移动的移动边界技术,结合欧拉坐标系下空气-过冷水滴两相流动控制方程的计算,对霜状冰的结冰过程进行了数值模拟,得到了NACA0012机翼在0°和4°攻角下机翼表面结冰后形成的冰形,与文献中的实验数据对比,表明本文的方法是可行和有效的。      

Earth-Based Visible and Near-IR Imaging of Mercury

New planned orbiter missions to Mercury have prompted renewed efforts to investigate the surface of Mercury via ground-based remote sensing. While the highest resolution instrumentation optical telescopes (e.g., HST) cannot be used at angular distances close to the Sun, advanced ground-based astronomical techniques and modern analytical and software can be used to obtain the resolved images of the poorly known or unknown part of Mercury. Our observations of the planet presented here were carried out in many observatories at morning and evening elongation of the planet. Stacking the acquired images of the hemisphere of Mercury, which was not observed by the Mariner 10 mission (1974–1975), is presented. Huge features found there change radically the existing hypothesis that the “continental” character of a surface may be attributed to the whole planet. We present the observational method, the data analysis approach, the resulting images and obtained properties of the Mercury’s surface.     

Three-dimensional cosmic-ray simulations: Heliographic latitude and current-sheet tilt

We present the results from a study of the variations of the cosmic-ray intensity with time, heliographic latitude, and longitude, and for varying interplanetary conditions, using our three-dimensional, time-dependent computer code for cosmic-ray transport in the heliosphere. Our code also produces a solar-wind and interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) configuration which is compared with observations. Because of the fully threedimensional nature of the model calculations, we are able to model time variations which would be expected to be observed along Ulysses's trajectory as it moves to high latitudes. In particular we can model the approximately 13-and 26-day solar-rotation induced variations in cosmic rays, solar wind and IMF, as a function of increasing heliographic latitude, as one moves poleward of the interplanetary current sheet. Our preliminary model results seem to be in general form quite similar to published data, but depend on the physical parameters used such as cosmic-ray diffusion coefficients, boundary conditions, and the nature of the solar wind and IMF and current sheet.     

飞机三维结冰模型及其数值求解方法

 对飞机结冰外形进行纯三维数值模拟,是目前飞机结冰预测中的一大难点。为了建立三维结冰数值模拟方法,基于Messinger的二维结冰模型,提出了一种考虑液态水溢流效应的三维结冰计算模型,并针对该模型建立了表面单元内溢流水流动的分配方案、发展了相应的迭代求解方法。采用本文方法对MS-317后掠翼结冰进行了计算,并与实验和Lewice3D的计算结果进行了对比。研究结果显示：本文方法具有较好的收敛性,计算的霜冰和明冰外形均与Lewice3D计算的冰形一致;对于霜冰和结冰时间较短的明冰,本文计算的冰形与实验吻合较好;对于结冰时间较长的明冰,本文计算的冰形与实验对比还有一定差异,但冰生长的总体趋势和大致体积与实验一致。同时,对比了MS-317无后掠翼与有后掠翼结明冰的外形,发现机翼后掠导致的三维溢流效应对结冰外形有明显影响,因此,对于三维结冰分析,如果用二维截面的结果来代替三维结果,其合理性还需验证。     

基于等 Weber 数的结冰外形修正

由于设备条件的限制,在进行结冰风洞试验时,试验 Weber 数与目标 Weber 数往往存在差异,为了获得与目标 Weber 数对应的冰形,需要对试验结果进行修正。本文分析了进行 Weber 数修正的原因,提出了根据几何特征量进行结冰外形修正的方法,并以某超临界翼型为对象,对不同 Weber 条件下的结冰外形进行了仿真,研究了Weber 数变化对结冰的影响规律,在此基础上开展了基于等 Weber 数的结冰外形修正。研究发现：(1)Weber 数主要影响冰角特征,对水滴收集特性、结冰极限及驻点冰厚度影响较小;(2)存在一个敏感 Weber 数,低于敏感值时, Weber 数变化对结冰影响不大,当 Weber 数高于敏感值时,Weber 数变化对结冰有明显影响;(3)采用本文提出的冰形修正方法,能保证冰形的宏观轮廓与目标冰形一致,修正后的冰形能适量消除由于 Weber 数误差导致的冰形差异,提高试验的精度。     

发动机进气道短舱前缘结冰三维模拟研究

为计算发动机进气道短舱前缘的结冰冰形,在Messinger结冰热力学模型的基础上发展了一套纯三维的表面溢流水流动结冰模型。考虑空气摩擦力为表面溢流水流动的主要驱动力,用空气对进气道表面的剪切力来确定溢流水的流动方向及流量分配。为求解溢流水结冰模型,发展了一套重复查找表面控制体状态的方法,能够快速完成整个三维表面的计算。用该方法对某三维发动机进气道进行计算,得到了三维结冰冰形,并将计算结果与FENSAP-ICE计算结果进行了对比,结果显示两者的冰形轮廓基本一致,仅在冰角处存在差异,表明本文三维发动机结冰计算模型与计算方法是有效的,其计算精度与FENSAP-ICE结果相当。     

Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Overview: The Instrument Suite and Mission

NASA’s Lunar Precursor Robotic Program (LPRP), formulated in response to the President’s Vision for Space Exploration, will execute a series of robotic missions that will pave the way for eventual permanent human presence on the Moon. The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) is first in this series of LPRP missions, and plans to launch in October of 2008 for at least one year of operation. LRO will employ six individual instruments to produce accurate maps and high-resolution images of future landing sites, to assess potential lunar resources, and to characterize the radiation environment. LRO will also test the feasibility of one advanced technology demonstration package. The LRO payload includes: Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA) which will determine the global topography of the lunar surface at high resolution, measure landing site slopes, surface roughness, and search for possible polar surface ice in shadowed regions, Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC) which will acquire targeted narrow angle images of the lunar surface capable of resolving meter-scale features to support landing site selection, as well as wide-angle images to characterize polar illumination conditions and to identify potential resources, Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND) which will map the flux of neutrons from the lunar surface to search for evidence of water ice, and will provide space radiation environment measurements that may be useful for future human exploration, Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment (DLRE) which will chart the temperature of the entire lunar surface at approximately 300 meter horizontal resolution to identify cold-traps and potential ice deposits, Lyman-Alpha Mapping Project (LAMP) which will map the entire lunar surface in the far ultraviolet. LAMP will search for surface ice and frost in the polar regions and provide images of permanently shadowed regions illuminated only by starlight. Cosmic Ray Telescope for the Effects of Radiation (CRaTER), which will investigate the effect of galactic cosmic rays on tissue-equivalent plastics as a constraint on models of biological response to background space radiation. The technology demonstration is an advanced radar (mini-RF) that will demonstrate X- and S-band radar imaging and interferometry using light weight synthetic aperture radar. This paper will give an introduction to each of these instruments and an overview of their objectives.     

旋转帽罩表面积冰甩脱位置的数值模拟

为了更好地理解旋转帽罩表面积冰的甩脱机理和过程,采用水杯法在万能试验机上分别测得积冰/铝板界面黏附强度值和积冰内部拉伸强度值。参考试验测得的这2个数据,结合内聚力模型（CZM）和扩展有限元法（X-FEM）,在有限元软件ANSYS中分别模拟得到积冰与旋转帽罩之间的界面分离区域和冰形内部裂纹路径及其扩展过程,对旋转帽罩表面积冰甩脱的位置和体积作出预测。预测结果与帽罩表面积冰甩脱试验结果作比较,证明了CZM和X-FEM耦合的数值模拟方法可行。为实际工程应用中的热气或者电防冰系统的布置提供参考。     

The Origin of Mercury’s Internal Magnetic Field

Mariner 10 measurements proved the existence of a large-scale internal magnetic field on Mercury. The observed field amplitude, however, is too weak to be compatible with typical convective planetary dynamos. The Lorentz force based on an extrapolation of Mariner 10 data to the dynamo region is 10⁻⁴ times smaller than the Coriolis force. This is at odds with the idea that planetary dynamos are thought to work in the so-called magnetostrophic regime, where Coriolis force and Lorentz force should be of comparable magnitude. Recent convective dynamo simulations reviewed here seem to resolve this caveat. We show that the available convective power indeed suffices to drive a magnetostrophic dynamo even when the heat flow though Mercury’s core–mantle boundary is subadiabatic, as suggested by thermal evolution models. Two possible causes are analyzed that could explain why the observations do not reflect a stronger internal field. First, toroidal magnetic fields can be strong but are confined to the conductive core, and second, the observations do not resolve potentially strong small-scale contributions. We review different dynamo simulations that promote either or both effects by (1) strongly driving convection, (2) assuming a particularly small inner core, or (3) assuming a very large inner core. These models still fall somewhat short of explaining the low amplitude of Mariner 10 observations, but the incorporation of an additional effect helps to reach this goal: The subadiabatic heat flow through Mercury’s core–mantle boundary may cause the outer part of the core to be stably stratified, which would largely exclude convective motions in this region. The magnetic field, which is small scale, strong, and very time dependent in the lower convective part of the core, must diffuse through the stagnant layer. Here, the electromagnetic skin effect filters out the more rapidly varying high-order contributions and mainly leaves behind the weaker and slower varying dipole and quadrupole components (Christensen in Nature 444:1056–1058, 2006). Messenger and BepiColombo data will allow us to discriminate between the various models in terms of the magnetic fields spatial structure, its degree of axisymmetry, and its secular variation.     

Short-Lived Radionuclides in Meteorites: Constraints on Nebular Timescales for the Production of Solids

Variations in the abundances of short-lived radionuclides such as ²⁶Al (τ_1/2 ≈ 0.74 Ma) and ⁵³Mn (τ_1/2 ≈ 3.7 Ma) in meteoritic solids may be used to infer relative formation intervals of these solids in the nebula at precisions of less than 1 Ma. In a strict chronometric interpretation of the isotopic variations, whereby criteria such as spatial and temporal isotopic homogeneity and closed system isotopic evolution are met, solid formation occurred in the nebula for at least several million years. This is longer than some theoretical and astronomical estimates for the duration of the active nebula. The evidence for live ⁴¹Ca (τ_1/2 ≈ 0.10 Ma) in meteoritic inclusions further indicates that the onset of solid formation occurred quite early, perhaps within a few hundred thousand years after the onset of the collapse of the sun's parent molecular cloud. Failure of the chronometric interpretation may arise for a variety of reasons, including but not limited to, the late, inhomogeneous injection of material from a nearby stellar source or the local production of short-lived radionuclides by an energetic particle irradiation, e. g., from T Tauri (X-wind) or galactic cosmic ray sources. Although some isotopic evidence exists that the criteria required for a strict chronometric interpretation are not met by each of the short-lived chronometers, there is no compelling reason to shorten the interval of solid formation in the nebula to less than 1 Ma. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

简化的积冰热力学模型及其应用

依据飞行器表面液态水凝结过程的热力学理论分析,提出了一种适用于不同环境温度的翼型结冰数值模拟方法.采用中心型有限体积方法求解N-S方程来获得翼型的绕流流场,结合给出的结冰数值模拟方法对两种典型温度下的翼型积冰情况进行了模拟.模拟所得的积冰冰形与文献中的实验数据吻合良好,表明该方法的可行性,并进一步给出了翼型表面的冻结系数分布.     

锥角对旋转整流罩积冰影响的模拟实验

采用缩比模型对4种不同锥角的旋转整流罩进行了冰风洞积冰模拟实验.推导出旋转表面积冰相似参数,并根据重要参数的匹配确定缩比整流罩模型的积冰实验参数.在实验中采用高速摄像系统记录冰生长过程及最终冰形.结果表明:4种锥角的整流罩表面积冰均由初期生成、分布连续的明冰和后期增长迅速的白色霜冰构成;锥角小于等于74°的整流罩表面霜冰为针状或粒状,积冰厚度较小;锥角大于80°的整流罩表面霜冰为羽毛状,积冰厚度较大,并伴随冰脱落现象,锥角较大的整流罩冰脱落位置向下游移动.