The private solution to the space transportation crisis

Confused and short-sighted decisions dominated by political expediency have been made about US space policy in the past 30 years. Overly large and ambitious systems have been chosen, resulting in today's crisis in space transportation. The history of commercial aircraft development offers an alternative example of producing in a range of sizes and capabilities for a wide variety of users, and shows that the space transport industry could benefit from applying the decision-making processes used in private enterprise. The authors examine strategies for privatization of space transportation and conclude that policy support for the commercial launch industry must be continued. NASA must be reoriented towards its basic research function, and more government services should be bought from the private sector.     

Leadership in space transportation

Rather than aiming at overall preemenence in space, as in the past, it is important for the USA now to specify goals and objectives for its space programme. In the space transportation market, the USA faces long-term competition. Planned properly, the Space Shuttle, Space Station and transfer stages can be used as a unique transport system, forcing other suppliers to compete on US terms. Such a total transport service system could also include ELV support. In entering into international space agreements, the government must take into account the objective of maintaining the competitiveness of the US commercial sector.     

The 2010 US space policy: A view from Europe

The authors examine the principles, goals and guidelines in the new US NSP. While in general favourable to the overall direction of the policy, noting that Europe too has similar goals or, in some cases, should be adopting US ideas, they are sceptical about certain aspects, such as the greater emphasis on commercial partnerships with NASA and the continuing protectionist launch policy. Particular points of concern are the vagueness and lack of clear goals in the human spaceflight programme and the US position on space weaponization at the Conference on Disarmament. Nevertheless, they believe that a similar type of EU-wide policy should be developed by the European Commission.     

Launch vouchers for space science research

Recent US space policy proposes the use of space transportation ‘vouchers’ for space science payloads. Vouchers could affect the pace of space science and developments in space transportation both in the USA and internationally. This article focuses on the economic costs and benefits of vouchers, and strategies for effective programme design.     

The next steps in exploring deep space—A cosmic study by the IAA

This paper presents the results of an IAA cosmic study on the Next Steps in Exploring Deep Space, the goal of which is to provide a vision for the scientific exploration of space by humans in the first half of the 21st Century. The study provides a roadmap for a systematic, logical, and science-driven plan for exploration of the Solar System and unlocking the mysteries of the Universe—a program that builds gradually and systematically to establish a permanent presence at each outpost along the way, and that builds the communications, transportation and other logistical infrastructure as it proceeds. The study suggests a set of long-term scientific goals for space exploration that provide the context for carrying out scientific investigations at specific destinations in space. An architecture is derived for the space flight infrastructure required to pursue these science goals at the specified destinations, including examination of the relevant policy and public engagement in this enterprise.     

Space policy and the size of the space shuttle fleet

During the space shuttle era, policy makers have repeatedly wrestled with the issue of fleet size. The number of shuttles had both practical and symbolic significance, reflecting the robustness of the space transportation system and US preeminence in space. In debating how many shuttles were needed, NASA and other government entities weighed various arguments to determine the optimum number of vehicles for human spaceflight. Deliberations and decisions about shuttle fleet size reflected changing policy priorities and attitudes about the role of the shuttle. That history frames issues that may arise again in planning for new space transportation vehicles beyond the shuttle.     

Setting space transportation policy for the 1990s

This article is a summary of a report on space transportation policy by the US Congress's Congressional Budget Office published in October 1986. The report was written as a contribution to the discussions in the USA on national space policy after the Challenger accident.     

United States space policy and international partnership

Has the current US space policy improved the USA's overall strategic position? Does it affect favorably international partnerships? These questions are examined in terms of security, political economy, and influence. In today's context, where there are more space players, more options, more potential for unintended consequences, and higher stakes, unilateral action is more limited in its effectiveness than in earlier times. Surveying current US space policy, it is not clear that data-driven, analytically based decisions are being made to affect positively national independence, innovation, market creation, and international perceptions of the USA as a trustworthy partner. More promising are the steps taken to bolster a predictable space operational environment and economic competitiveness. Ultimately, in order to achieve American excellence and leadership, a ‘closed loop’ on the policy system is needed, to gauge regularly and systematically whether the US is achieving the desired national outcomes.     

Debating the future of US space policy

A briefing on the subject of US space policy was held in Washington in July 2009 by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Based around some of its recent publications, while emphasizing the US situation and direction, the briefing did not ignore the context of international space activity. In particular it considered China's spacefaring development and suggested ways of engaging more fruitfully with that country. This report presents a summary of the issues raised and recommendations made.     

The US national space transportation policy: issues for congress

Below is a summary of what was to be the first in a series of reports produced by the Office of Technology Assessment (now defunct) on policy for the USA's future space transportation technology and industrial base. It examines the Clinton Administration's 1994 National Space Transportation Policy and supporting implementation plans and raises and analyses such issues as conflicts and redundancies within NASA and DoD space transportation development programs; competition and cooperation with foreign launch vehicle and component providers; US government limits on the conversion of long-range missiles to space launchers in the face of Russian activity in this area; and the effectiveness of Administration efforts to include the private sector in space transportation decision making. Some issues not covered in the Policy are also discussed.     

International cooperation in space — new opportunities, new approaches : An assessment

Now that the Cold War is over, the authors of this Viewpoint believe that in the interests of the USA as well as the rest of the world international cooperation should become a more fundamental element of US space policy. Cooperative agreements will not always be easy to reach and will require creative statecraft. To that end the USA should take the initiative in establishing a high-level international policy forum to facilitate discussions on the main goals and objectives to be served by international cooperation in space.     

China's rise in space and US policy responses: A collision course?

China's opaque politics present particular difficulties for US space policy. Heavily invested in and reliant on space, the US will closely monitor China's burgeoning space program. New space powers, and the increasing use of space generally will further create significant challenges, most particularly to the reliance of states on space for national security. In order to maintain its space capabilities, the US will have to decide between securing this via multilateral and co-operative uses of space, or through trying to maintain a level of dominance over other space actors. While very gradually shifting away from the latter position, Washington's policy choices are complicated by the lack of a clear Chinese space strategy. While the Chinese space program, and its wider intentions, are opaque, tenure of a more cooperative approach course might prove fragile.     

Orbital remote sensing: Space technology applications in South-east Asia

The changing context of space remote sensing applications is described in terms of evolving needs and capabilities in South-east Asia and in terms of recent policy decisions in spacefaring nations. Emphasis is placed on the need for a technology which allows the monitoring of, eg the exploitation and degradation of natural resources, crop development, climatic effects and the like. The implications of policy adjustments in the US LANDSAT programme, including its proposed commercialization, are discussed, and the potential role of other existing and future satellites is reviewed.     

The US civilian space programme : Charting a new course

The US space programme continues to face difficulties in restructuring to meet existing political and fiscal conditions, in part because the basic structure and focus of the programme derive from the tensions of the Cold War. This paper argues that the world's new, more complicated political and economic conditions present a challenge for US policy makers that can be met with a renewed focus on the pursuit of science and the public good, within the context of international economic competition and political and scientific cooperation.     

US space transportation policy : History and issues for a new administration

The new US administration faces complex questions on the future role of the USA in space, and tough decisions on how to pay for it. Decisions made now on space transportation will have a strong impact on US space leadership for the next decade. The author discusses the history and current state of space transportation planning, and considers the key issues which will confront the new administration.     

Can the demos make a difference? Prospects for participatory democracy in shaping the future course of US space exploration

US space exploration policy deliberations tend not to include citizens who lack direct, vested financial interests in the space enterprise. Could expanding the circle of US space policy development players to involve citizens more aptly serve space exploration and the interests of American democratic society in the 21st century? I evaluate the merits and feasibility of citizen participation, drawing upon democratic theory and scholarship analyzing public participation in techno-scientific matters, previous experiences of public involvement in space exploration policy formation, and reflections on my professional experiences in space policy development. I argue that public engagement will enrich the debate surrounding the US future in space and may point toward a program American citizens will support as a meaningful future in the cosmos. I suggest three guiding principles and outline four mechanisms that, if embraced by US space policy makers, could foster meaningful public participation in informing the US space exploration agenda.     

Risk management in commercial launches

The article explores the way so-called legal space risks are managed in US commercial space transportation. Risk management in the space transportation field is a highly regulated process, thus allowing practically no possibility of deviating from the system stemming from such regulation. Such a system arises from the legislation, basically the Commercial Space Launch Act, and the agreements. This risk-management structure is characterized by the transfer of risks from the space launch provider to both the user and the government and by the ensuing launcher's limitation of liability.     

Some thoughts on space station science

US government proposals to cut the scientific budget of the ISS are placed within the historical context of the US space program. The author divides this into three phases—early days to the end of Apollo, the Shuttle era, and the Space Station era—and shows that all of these have suffered from decisions to reduce scientific capabilities. Even without cuts, it is unlikely that the Station can produce scientific outcomes that are commensurate with the investment that has taken place and it is imperative that policy makers learn from the lost opportunities of the two earlier phases if greater disappointment is to be avoided.     

Earth observation and UK science policy

This paper examines the way in which Earth observation is linked to UK science policy through the 1993 UK science White Paper and subsequent policy statements, and how the central theme of partnership has been developed in practice. An example of crop yield prediction is given to illustrate the strengths and the weaknesses of the approach. The UK science and space strategies are set in the context of the European Strategy for Space and links are made to the US global change research strategy.     

The space elevator in the context of current space exploration policy

The space elevator is an advanced space transportation system that someday could replace chemical rockets as humanity's primary means of reaching Earth's orbit. However, before this can occur, a number of enabling technologies will need to be developed, and a variety of economic and policy questions must be addressed. The goal of this paper is to examine the feasibility of the space elevator in the context of current space exploration policy. The paper reviews the space elevator's critical enabling technologies and presents their wide variety of applications. The challenges of funding the space elevator and of building support for the program are discussed. The potential for international cooperation is considered, and the role of the space elevator in the Vision for Space Exploration is examined. The paper argues that each of the space elevator's component technologies ought to be developed independently to meet separate nearer-term objectives. The space elevator should be just one of many applications considered in making decisions to pursue research and development related to each component technology. The enabling technologies, once mature, might eventually be integrated in the construction of a full-scale space elevator from the Earth's surface to geosynchronous orbit and beyond.