Taxonomy of Human Wayfinding Tasks: A Knowledge-Based Approach

Abstract

Although the term “Wayfinding” has been defined by several authors, it subsumes a whole set of tasks that involve different cognitive processes, drawing on different cognitive components. Research on wayfinding has been conducted with different paradigms using a variety of wayfinding tasks. This makes it difficult to compare the results and implications of many studies. A systematic classification is needed in order to determine and investigate the cognitive processes and structural components of how humans solve wayfinding problems. Current classifications of wayfinding distinguish tasks on a rather coarse level or do not take the navigator's knowledge, a key factor in wayfinding, into account. We present an extended taxonomy of wayfinding that distinguishes tasks by external constraints as well as by the level of spatial knowledge that is available to the navigator. The taxonomy will help to decrease ambiguity of wayfinding tasks and it will facilitate understanding of the differentiated demands a navigator faces when solving wayfinding problems.     

The explorer's complex

It is time to think about the rationales of space exploration, more than 50 years after the beginning of human space flight. Between J.F. Kennedy words (“landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth”) and the Mars One, what means today the dangers of exploration, or the concept of “representative of mankind” applied to the astronauts? Beyond the financial, technical and human risks, exploration, and today space exploration, belongs always to the human identity, the way to confront human nature (especially imagination) to the reality of time and space.     

Space exploration and human survival

I am sympathetic to the view that, given the likelihood of massive natural disasters, such as collisions between the Earth and large asteroids, we should engage in large-scale space exploration and colonization so as to hedge our bets against extinction. I will consider several criticisms of this view. For example, some philosophers may raise objections against the notion of long-term human survival as a value. How can we have obligations towards beings who have not even been conceived yet and thus cannot be properly said to have rights? On a different note, Wendell Berry argues that the abundance of resources in space will produce bad character, for good character requires the discipline of finitude. Others challenge the connection between space exploration and survival, for they fear that by entertaining the promise of new Earths in the heavens we are more likely to neglect our planet, thus leading to our downfall. Presumably, we should instead increase our efforts to restore and preserve the balance of nature. I will advance a variety of replies. For example, we do decide for posterity to a great extent. We may plant the trees from which “our” descendants will receive nourishment and shade, or we may destroy what could have given them a fighting chance against drought and famine. We have an obligation not to plant a bomb that will go off two years from now in a hospital nursery, and another to ensure that the buildup of chemicals in the hospital water tank will not reach critical mass and kill most of the newborns in ten years. The “balance of nature” involved in another objection is a myth that cannot be justified by natural history, whether astronomical or biological. Moreover, the inevitable changes in the environment, independent of asteroid impacts, will make the Earth uninhabitable in a few hundreds of millions and years. In addition, in order to act wisely we need an understanding of the Earth as a planet, and this requires the exploration of space.     

太空试验场的概念和内涵

针对空间科学、技术、应用各领域试验统筹有限,当前部分核心空间技术攻关过程中面临的机理不清以及空间作为战略制高点对国计民生的拉动力不足等问题,栾恩杰院士2016年首度提出太空试验场的概念,希望通过构建一系列的空间设施,系统地规划并主导后续太空试验任务。文章在调研国内外空间试验现状的基础上,分析空间试验发展趋势,阐述太空试验场的概念——它由空间段、地面段和软环境组成,提出其未来分阶段建设目标和系统服务框架。有关论述可为我国“成体系、分阶段”规划建设空间试验类基础设施,实现“按需求、高效率”的空间试验管理提供决策参考。     

The DISC Quotient

D.I.S.C: Decipherment Impact of a Signal's Content.The authors present a numerical method to characterise the significance of the receipt of a complex and potentially decipherable signal from extraterrestrial intelligence (ETI). The purpose of the scale is to facilitate the public communication of work on any such claimed signal, as such work proceeds, and to assist in its discussion and interpretation.Building on a “position” paper rationale, this paper looks at the DISC quotient proposed and develops the algorithmic steps and comprising measures that form this post detection strategy for information dissemination, based on prior work on message detection, decipherment. As argued, we require a robust and incremental strategy, to disseminate timely, accurate and meaningful information, to the scientific community and the general public, in the event we receive an “alien” signal that displays decipherable information. This post-detection strategy is to serve as a stepwise algorithm for a logical approach to information extraction and a vehicle for sequential information dissemination, to manage societal impact.The “DISC Quotient”, which is based on signal analysis processing stages, includes factors based on the signal's data quantity, structure, affinity to known human languages, and likely decipherment times. Comparisons with human and other phenomena are included as a guide to assessing likely societal impact. It is submitted that the development, refinement and implementation of DISC as an integral strategy, during the complex processes involved in post detection and decipherment, is essential if we wish to minimize disruption and optimize dissemination.     

Manifest complexity: A foundational ethic for astrobiology?

This paper examines the age old question of the basis of moral value in the new context of astrobiology, which offers a fresh perspective. The goal is to offer the broad outline of a general theory of moral value that can accommodate the diversity of living entities we are likely to encounter beyond the confines of Earth. It begins with ratiocentrism, the view that the possession of reason is the primary means by which we differentiate entities having moral value in and of themselves from those having moral value merely by virtue of the uses to which they can be put. I broaden this basis to include sociality and culture, arguing that these three attributes tend evolve as a “package deal.” Because of this, it's really the sociality-reason-culture triad (SRCT) which should be the criterion for intrinsic moral value. If the SRCT linkage is sufficiently strong, it follows that this sort of moral valuation would be shared by any non-human entities capable of reflection on the nature of such things, granting it a curious kind of objectivity. I then suggest that the unfolding of complexity produced by SRCT species may be the best means to realize the manifest destiny (manifest complexity) of all life, which could provide an ultimate, metaphysical foundation for ethical value. Finally, I outline how this new theory can be applied to different types of entities that we may encounter beyond Earth.     

Reducing biological contamination by a space suited astronaut: Laboratory and field test results from Aouda.X

As part of the “PolAres” research programme, we are investigating techniques to detect and reduce forward contamination of the Mars regolith during human exploration. We report here on the development of a spacesuit simulator-prototype dubbed “Aouda.X,” document the inability of current technology to produce a static charge sufficient to minimize dust transport on the suit, and present preliminary results employing laser induced fluorescence emission (L.I.F.E.) techniques to monitor fluorescent microspherules as biological contamination proxies.     

Information theory,animal communication,and the search for extraterrestrial intelligence

We present ongoing research in the application of information theory to animal communication systems with the goal of developing additional detectors and estimators for possible extraterrestrial intelligent signals. Regardless of the species, for intelligence (i.e., complex knowledge) to be transmitted certain rules of information theory must still be obeyed. We demonstrate some preliminary results of applying information theory to socially complex marine mammal species (bottlenose dolphins and humpback whales) as well as arboreal squirrel monkeys, because they almost exclusively rely on vocal signals for their communications, producing signals which can be readily characterized by signal analysis. Metrics such as Zipf's Law and higher-order information-entropic structure are emerging as indicators of the communicative complexity characteristic of an “intelligent message” content within these animals’ signals, perhaps not surprising given these species’ social complexity. In addition to human languages, for comparison we also apply these metrics to pulsar signals—perhaps (arguably) the most “organized” of stellar systems—as an example of astrophysical systems that would have to be distinguished from an extraterrestrial intelligence message by such information theoretic filters. We also look at a message transmitted from Earth (Arecibo Observatory) that contains a lot of meaning but little information in the mathematical sense we define it here. We conclude that the study of non-human communication systems on our own planet can make a valuable contribution to the detection of extraterrestrial intelligence by providing quantitative general measures of communicative complexity. Studying the complex communication systems of other intelligent species on our own planet may also be one of the best ways to deprovincialize our thinking about extraterrestrial communication systems in general.     

航行体高速入水问题研究综述

从理论研究、实验研究和数值仿真研究3个方面综述了航行体高速入水问题的研究进展。入水问题研究可分为入水冲击、空泡的形成演化以及入水弹道3个方向。在入水冲击研究方面,概述了入水冲击的理论计算方法、数值仿真方法以及入水冲击实验的研究进展;在入水空泡研究方面,概述了空泡的形成理论与形态演化模型、入水空泡实验以及数值仿真研究成果;在入水弹道研究方面,概述了入水弹道稳定性的实验、数值仿真研究情况。在此基础上,提出了后续入水研究发展重点方向。     

运载火箭摇摆发动机与全箭动力学特性耦合关系研究

针对运载火箭“摆动发动机-伺服回路”负载频率低,可能影响全箭弹性模态稳定性的问题,首先建立了包含“发动机-伺服回路”动力学模型的全箭动力学模型,分析了“发动机－伺服回路”负载频率对伺服机构传递函数和控制系统开环传递函数特性的影响,指出了“发动机－伺服回路”负载频率与箭体弹性模态之间的动力学耦合关系,给出了保证弹性模态稳定的谐振频率判据,最后计算了保证全箭弹性模态稳定的负载频率边界值,并通过仿真算例验证了结果的正确性。研究结果表明,“发动机－伺服回路”局部的负载频率通过惯性负载力矩作用与全箭弹性模态形成耦合,当负载频率位于上、下边界值范围之内时就会导致某些弹性模态不稳定,因此在实际工程中应对负载频率进行限制,以保证运载火箭的飞行安全。
     

Wayfinding Through Orientation

Dominant approaches in computer-assisted wayfinding support adhere to the deeply problematic principles of turn-by-turn navigation. In this article, we suggest a new approach called “Wayfinding Through Orientation,” which supports the acquisition of spatial knowledge and cognitive mapping for advancing the user’s spatial orientation. Being oriented on one’s way is a prerequisite to enabling people to verify instructions and to incorporate new spatial information into their existing knowledge structure. In three studies described in this article we first present empirical evidence that people can be supported in survey knowledge acquisition through suitable wayfinding instructions. Consequently, we explore orientation information in human wayfinding instructions. Finally, we outline how orientation information can be communicated within a prototypically implemented navigation assistance system.     

The LEO Archipelago: A system of earth-rings for communications,mass-transport to space,solar power,and control of global warming

Man's quest to get into space is hindered by major problems (e.g., system-development and capital costs, expense of putting mass into orbit, trapped-radiation belts, and environmental impact of a large increase in rocket launches). A multi-purpose low-earth-orbit system of rings circling the earth – the “LEO ARCHIPELAGO^TM” – is proposed as a means of solving or bypassing many of them. A fiber-optic ring about the earth would be an initial testing and developmental stage for the Ring Systems, while providing cash-flow through a LEO-based, high-band-width, world-wide communication system. A low-earth-orbit-based space-elevator system, “Sling-on-a-Ring^TM”, is proposed as the crucial developmental stage of the LEO Archipelago. Being a LEO-based heavy-mass lifter, rather than earth- or GEO-based, it is much less massive and therefore less costly than other proposed space-elevators. With the advent of lower-cost, higher-mass transport to orbit, the options for further space development (e.g., space solar power, radiation, and space-debris dampers, sun shades, and permanent LEO habitation) are greatly expanded.This paper provides an update of the Sling-on-a-Ring concept in terms of new materials, potential applications, and trade-offs associated with an earlier model. The impact of Colossal Carbon Tubes, CCT, a new material with high tensile strength, extremely-low density, and other favorable properties, and other new technologies (e.g., solar-powered lasers, power beaming to near-space and earth, and thermal-control systems) on the development of associated LEO-Ring systems is also explored. The material's effect on the timeline for the system development indicates the feasibility of near-term implementation of the system (possibly within the decade). The Sling-on-a-Ring can provide a less-expensive, environment-friendly mode of access to space. This would pave the way (via eventual operation at >1000 t per day by 2050) for large scale development of space-based technologies.     

Regulating ISS— An interdisciplinary essay

The International Space Station (ISS) is a multifaceted international project. Several space agencies from different countries work together in the Outer Space. This paper will illustrate the exciting questions arising from such a venture and therefore the challenge to incorporate a variety of issues into a legal order. The Paper is addressed to lawyers who need not necessarily be experts in space law, and also to space experts who have no legal background. It demonstrates the three layers of the ISS regime—from the “Intergovernmental Agreement” (IGA) as a “frame” with pillars and boundaries, over the “Memoranda of Understanding” (MOU) which rules in a more specific way, to the so-called “Implementing Arrangements” regulating the overall and single aspects of ISS in detail.The paper underlines questions of applicable jurisdiction, utilization rights and the rights on intellectual property onboard of the ISS. Furthermore the problem of liability in space flight is highlighted, also with a view to the different aspects of the liability issue, for example (internal) liability caused by programme delays (e.g. US Space Shuttle delays).In conclusion, the paper illustrates the situation of astronauts by the “Code of Conduct for the International Space Station Crew” and provides an example for the actual ISS Programme—an international cooperation in a highly demanding environment which will be a basis for future space ventures in many ways.     

JPL Innovation Foundry

Space science missions are increasingly challenged today: in ambition, by increasingly sophisticated hypotheses tested; in development, by the increasing complexity of advanced technologies; in budgeting, by the decline of flagship-class mission opportunities; in management, by expectations for breakthrough science despite a risk-averse programmatic climate; and in planning, by increasing competition for scarce resources. How are the space-science missions of tomorrow being formulated? The paper describes the JPL Innovation Foundry, created in 2011, to respond to this evolving context. The Foundry integrates methods, tools, and experts that span the mission concept lifecycle. Grounded in JPL's heritage of missions, flight instruments, mission proposals, and concept innovation, the Foundry seeks to provide continuity of support and cost-effective, on-call access to the right domain experts at the right time, as science definition teams and Principal Investigators mature mission ideas from “cocktail napkin” to PDR. The Foundry blends JPL capabilities in proposal development and concurrent engineering, including Team X, with new approaches for open-ended concept exploration in earlier, cost-constrained phases, and with ongoing research and technology projects. It applies complexity and cost models, project-formulation lessons learned, and strategy analyses appropriate to each level of concept maturity. The Foundry is organizationally integrated with JPL formulation program offices; staffed by JPL's line organizations for engineering, science, and costing; and overseen by senior Laboratory leaders to assure experienced coordination and review. Incubation of each concept is tailored depending on its maturity and proposal history, and its highest-leverage modeling and analysis needs.     

Outlook of possible European contributions to future exploration scenarios and architectures

Building upon the important experience acquired with the development of the International Space Station, the major spacefaring countries are working within the International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG) at the definition of a coordinated framework for expanding the human presence beyond the Low Earth Orbit, the Global Exploration Roadmap (GER). The GER defines a long-range strategy for global exploration and include three major elements.

• •Common goals of ISECG participating agencies for space exploration.
• •Notional mission scenarios which are technically feasible and programmatically implementable. Two mission scenarios were defined in the 1st iteration of the GER: the “Asteroid Next” and the “Moon Next” mission scenarios.
• •Identification of near-term opportunities for coordination and cooperation related to e.g. the development of technologies, the implementation of robotic missions to destination of interest for closing strategic knowledge gaps which need to be addressed prior to human missions as well as the utilization of ISS for demonstration of exploration enabling capabilities.

In 2009 two studies have been awarded by ESA to Industrial Teams led by Thales Alenia Space—Italy and by Astrium—Germany to define, analyze and assess optional European scenarios for future human spaceflight and exploration activities, and to derive the required capabilities for the investigated timeframe until the year 2033. Work on the European scenarios has been aligned with and informed by the international work on the GER.A conceptual design of different Building Block Elements, representing critical contributions to international Design Reference Missions (DRM's) included in the ISECG GER, has been performed and analyzed with respect to programmatic risks, budgets and required technologies. Key driving requirements for the analyzed Building Block elements have been derived from the international DRM's included in the GER.The interim outcomes of the human exploration scenario study will be presented, identifying opportunities for European Contributions to an international exploration undertaking.     

View makes a difference: Presenting human figures from the back or front affects mental spatial transformations of children and adults

Previous research suggested that performance in spatial judgments involving rotated human figures is poorer if these figures are presented from the front than from the back. We further investigated this effect, controlling for visible facial information in front and back view by presenting figures' faces as profile. Children's and adults' judgments were still faster and less error prone if figures were presented from the back. Moreover, reaction times indicated that participants did not mentally rotate figures in front view. Children performed overall more poorly than adults, but there were also qualitative differences suggesting that children are more susceptible to embodiment effects than adults. This study underlines that embodiment may have differential effects in spatial transformation tasks, enhancing or impairing performance.     

System design of the Hayabusa 2—Asteroid sample return mission to 1999 JU3

The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency is currently developing the second asteroid sample return mission, designated as Hayabusa 2. Following the successful return of Hayabusa from the asteroid “Itokawa”, Hayabusa 2 is designed as a round-trip mission to the asteroid “1999 JU3”. The 1999 JU3 is a C-type asteroid, which is believed to contain organic matter and hydrated minerals. Thus, it is expected that successful sample collection will provide additional knowledge on the origin and evolution of the planets and, in particular, the origin of water and organic matter. The current mission scenario will enable the spacecraft to reach 1999 JU3 in the middle of 2018 and perform an asteroid proximity operation for 1.5 years. Three touch downs for sampling and one 2-m-class crater generation by means of a high-speed impact operation are planned during the asteroid proximity operation. The samples are to be brought back to the Earth by a re-entry capsule. The present paper describes the system design of Hayabusa 2, some key technical challenges of the mission, and the development status.     

小天体柔性附着状态协同估计方法

针对小天体附着过程易发生倾覆、反弹导致任务失败问题,提出“柔性附着”概念,替代传统小天体探测的刚性附着模式,为提高小天体附着任务可靠性提供新的解决思路和技术途径。在此基础上,针对柔性着陆器的状态估计问题展开研究。首先建立了柔性着陆器近似模型,提出了柔性着陆器“等效面”概念及柔性着陆器姿态的近似表征方式,进而提出了柔性附着状态协同估计方法,并通过数值仿真检验了柔性着陆器状态协同估计的可行性。