United Nations Human Space Technology Initiative (HSTI)

The Human Space Technology Initiative was launched in 2010 within the framework of the United Nations Programme on Space Applications implemented by the Office for Outer Space Affairs of the United Nations. It aims to involve more countries in activities related to human spaceflight and space exploration and to increase the benefits from the outcome of such activities through international cooperation, to make space exploration a truly international effort.     

Capacity building in space technology development: A new initiative within the United Nations programme on space applications

Since 1971 the UN Programme on Space Applications, implemented by the Office for Outer Space Affairs, has been organizing workshops, symposiums and expert meetings and providing training opportunities in the practical applications of space technology. In 2009 the Office launched the Basic Space Technology Initiative (BSTI). The BSTI encompasses a range of activities in support of capacity building in space technology development in response to the growing interest of academic and governmental organizations in many countries to establish basic, indigenous capabilities to develop nano- and small satellites. Considerations such as the education and training of experts, the creation of required testing and building infrastructure, opportunities for international cooperation and the applicable legal and regulatory frameworks are therefore of particular interest to these organizations. The BSTI aims to assist them with their efforts. This paper describes the origins of the initiative, the activities that have been conducted to date and the work planned for 2011 and beyond.     

EVA 2000: a European/Russian space suit concept

For the European manned space activities an EVA space suit system was being developed in the frame of the Hermes Space Vehicle Programme of the European Space Agency (ESA). The space suit was to serve the needs for all relevant extravehicular activities for the Hermes Columbus operations planned to begin in 2004. For the present Russian manned space programme the relevant EVAs are performed by the Orlan-DMA semi-rigid space suit. The origin of its development reaches back to the 1970s and has since been adapted to cover the needs for extravehicular activities on Salyut and MIR until today. The latest modification of the space suit, which guaranteed its completely self-contained operation, was made in 1988. However, Russian specialists considered it necessary to start developing an EVA space suit of a new generation, which would have improved performance and would cover the needs by the turn of the century and into the beginning of the next century. Potentially these two suit developments could have a lot in common based on similarities in present concepts. As future manned space activities become more and more an international effort, a safe and reliable interoperability of the different space suit systems is required. Based on the results of the Munich Minister Conference in 1991, the European Space Agency and the Russian Space Agency agreed to initiate a requirements analysis and conceptual design study to determine the feasibility of a joint space suit development, EVA 2000. The design philosophy for the EVA 2000 study was oriented on a space suit system design of: space suit commonality and interoperability; increased crew productivity and safety; increase in useful life and reduced maintainability; reduced development and production cost. The EVA 2000 feasibility study was performed in 1992, and with the positive conclusions for EVA 2000, this approach became the new joint European Russian EVA Suit 2000 Development Programme. This paper gives an overview of the results of the feasibility study and presents the joint requirements and the proposed design concept of a jointly developed European Russian space suit.     

Aiding astronomy in developing nations: Japanese ODA

In order to promote education and research in developing nations, the Government of Japan has been providing developing nations with high-grade equipment under the framework of the Official Development Assistance (ODA) cooperation programme since 1982. Under this successful cooperation programme, 24 astronomical instruments have been donated to 19 developing nations up to the end of the Japanese fiscal year 2003. The instruments donated included university-level reflecting telescopes, as well as modern planetaria used for educational purposes, together with various accessories. This paper reports on a continuation of the previous ODA donations and the subsequent follow-up programmes provided with the assistance of the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and the cooperation with the Programme on Space Applications of the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (OOSA). It also describes how aid applications should be pursued.     

Development of indigenous capability in remote sensing

This article examines the commitments of a number of space-faring nations to the development and application of remote-sensing activities, including the development of human resources. It also reflects on the ‘application syndrome’ in developing countries, resulting in an over-concentration on practical, short-term projects to the detriment of more long-term research capabilities. There is a growing awareness that this trend should not continue indefinitely, and that the developing countries should be concerned not only with what a given technology can do, but also with how and why it works the way it does. Through such a process, the developing countries can contribute to its growth and development, and make effective use of their research efforts in solving their own problems. The article concludes with a discussion of the efforts of the United Nations, particularly its Space Applications Programme, to foster the development of indigenous capability in remote-sensing technology.     

Education curricula of the UN-affiliated regional Centres for Space Science and Technology Education

Since 1988 the United Nations, through its Programme on Space Applications, has been supporting the establishment and operation of regional Centres for Space Science and Technology Education in Africa, Asia and the Pacific, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Western Asia. Simultaneously, education curricula have been developed for remote sensing and geographic information systems, satellite communications, satellite meteorology and global climate, and space and atmospheric science. The report briefly reviews these developments and highlights the most recent updated education curricula in the four disciplines that have been made available in 2002, in the six official languages of the United Nations, for implementation at the regional centres and beyond.     

Space agencies and the UN system: the Space Agency Forum (SAF) 10th Plenary

The Space Agency Forum (SAF) met for its 10th plenary meeting in Bremen on 30 September 2003. Its motto was “Space Agencies and the UN System”. Following various presentations on relevant issues, including the UN Space Applications Programme and the follow-up of UNISPACE III, SAF members discussed their participation in these fields. The meeting resulted in a number of inputs to these issue areas and coordinated approaches vis-à-vis policy questions.     

European space research in support of international partnership

The envisaged future space research programmes, whether in the field of space exploration or Earth observation are becoming more and more technically complicated and so costly that a single nation can hardly afford to realize them. Major non-European space-faring nations, China and India will progressively play an important role besides US, Russia and Japan. The Space Advisory Group of the European Commission recommended that the European Commission supports within Horizon 2020 a comprehensive Robotic Mars-Exploration Programme under European leadership that should become an essential element of a coordinated international space research programme. The International Space Station (ISS) experience shows that cooperative space programmes build links between industries and laboratories from around the world, which then further develop in non-space related activities, with positive impact on the economy and scientific research. Strategies need to be developed to mitigate the gradual increasing risks incurred by climate change. In order to lower their entry barrier to engage in space emerging and developing space nations need to be included in cooperative space programmes. We present the recommendations of the Space Advisory Group of the European Commission concerning Europe's participation to global space endeavours.     

Developments in space activities in Poland

Poland has a long-standing tradition in space activities. Polish institutions have participated as co-investigators in almost all European Space Agency (ESA) science projects, as well as on many other missions. However, the first Polish satellite (PW-SAT) was only launched in 2012. Poland was one of the first Eastern European countries to conclude a Cooperation Agreement with ESA in the peaceful use of outer space; it was signed in 1994 and followed by a second in January 2002. Negotiations on Polish membership in the ESA were started in autumn of 2011, and ended in April 2012. Following ratification of the agreement, Poland officially became the 20th Member State of ESA on 19 November 2012. This article examines how Poland is setting its way as a space nation. It describes recent developments in the Polish space programme, including the road to Poland's full membership in the European Space Agency.     

Space-based societal applications—Relevance in developing countries

Space technology has the vast potential for addressing a variety of societal problems of the developing countries, particularly in the areas of communication, education and health sectors, land and water resources management, disaster management and weather forecasting. Both remote sensing and communication technologies can be used to achieve this goal.With its primary emphasis on application of space technology, on an end-to-end basis, towards national development, the Indian Space Programme has distinguished itself as one of the most cost-effective and development-oriented space programmes in the world.Developing nations are faced with the enormous task of carrying development-oriented education to the masses at the lower strata of their societies. One important feature of these populations is their large number and the spread over vast and remote areas of these nations, making the reaching out to them a difficult task. Satellite communication (Satcom) technology offers the unique capability of simultaneously reaching out to very large numbers, spread over vast areas, including the remote corners of the country. It is a strong tool to support development education. India has been amongst the first few nations to explore and put to use the Satcom technology for education and development-oriented services to the rural masses.Most of the developing countries have inadequate infrastructure to provide proper medical care to the rural population. Availability of specialist doctors in rural areas is a major bottleneck. Use of Satcom and information technology to connect rural clinics to urban hospitals through telemedicine systems is one of the solutions; and India has embarked upon an effective satellite-based telemedicine programme.Space technology is also useful in disaster warning and management related applications. Use of satellite systems and beacons for locating the distressed units on land, sea or air is well known to us. Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is already a part of the International initiative called Satellite Aided Search and Rescue System.The programme to set up satellite-based Village Resource Centres (VRCs) across India, for providing a variety of services relevant to the rural communities, is also a unique societal application of space technology. The VRCs are envisaged as single window delivery mechanism for a variety of space-based products and services, such as tele-education; telemedicine; information on natural resources for planning and development at local level; interactive advisories on agriculture, fisheries, land and water resources management, livestock management, etc.; interactive vocational training towards alternative livelihood; e-governance; weather information; etc.This paper describes the various possibilities and potentials of Satcom and Remote Sensing technologies for societal applications. The initiatives taken by Indian Space Research Organisation in this direction are highlighted.     

Korea''s space development programme: Policy and law

Korea now has a rapidly expanding space programme with exploration aspirations. The government is giving priority to the aerospace industry and, to put it on a better footing, recently enacted a New Space Exploitation Promotion Act. The early history and current and future development of Korea's space activities are briefly described in advance of a comprehensive presentation of the contents of the Act, including launch licensing, liability, registration of space objects, use of satellite information, astronaut rescue, third party liability insurance and establishment of institutions and plans to assist the Korean space effort. A call is made for Asian countries to unite and further their space development through a regional space agency.     

Space Phoenix

The US federal government is collaborating with a non-profit university consortium and its commercial project managers to develop the Space Shuttle fleet's expended external fuel tanks for scientific and commercial uses in space. Nearly a half dozen years in evolution, the Space Phoenix Program is a private-sector civil space programme with the long-term goal of opening the Earth's space to as many people, organizations and activities as possible, as soon as possible, and at the lowest cost to them as possible. In time it is expected to be a major focus for private-sector activities in space. This report describes how it will work.     

The European space exploration programme: current status of ESA's plans for Moon and Mars exploration

After a large consultation with the scientific and industrial communities in Europe, the Aurora Space Exploration Programme was unanimously approved at the European Space Agency (ESA) Council at ministerial level in Edinburgh in 2001. This marked the start of the programme's preparation phase that was due to finish by the end of 2004. Aurora features technology development robotic and crewed rehearsal missions aimed at preparing a human mission to Mars by 2033. Due to the evolving context, both international and European, ESA has undertaken a review of the goals and approach of its exploration programme. While maintaining the main robotic missions that had been conceived during Aurora, the European Space Exploration Programme that is currently being proposed to the Aurora participating states and other ESA Member States has a reviewed approach and will feature a greater synergy with other ESA programmes. The paper will present the process that led to the revision of ESA's plans in the field of exploration and will give the current status of the programme.     

Regulating ISS— An interdisciplinary essay

The International Space Station (ISS) is a multifaceted international project. Several space agencies from different countries work together in the Outer Space. This paper will illustrate the exciting questions arising from such a venture and therefore the challenge to incorporate a variety of issues into a legal order. The Paper is addressed to lawyers who need not necessarily be experts in space law, and also to space experts who have no legal background. It demonstrates the three layers of the ISS regime—from the “Intergovernmental Agreement” (IGA) as a “frame” with pillars and boundaries, over the “Memoranda of Understanding” (MOU) which rules in a more specific way, to the so-called “Implementing Arrangements” regulating the overall and single aspects of ISS in detail.The paper underlines questions of applicable jurisdiction, utilization rights and the rights on intellectual property onboard of the ISS. Furthermore the problem of liability in space flight is highlighted, also with a view to the different aspects of the liability issue, for example (internal) liability caused by programme delays (e.g. US Space Shuttle delays).In conclusion, the paper illustrates the situation of astronauts by the “Code of Conduct for the International Space Station Crew” and provides an example for the actual ISS Programme—an international cooperation in a highly demanding environment which will be a basis for future space ventures in many ways.     

A European view on UNISPACE III follow-up

Preparations for the third UN Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNISPACE III) were intense. The conference itself was a success. But what forms will the follow-up take? Just reading the 150-page report is an effort in itself. Having played a central part in the preparations and organization, Europe fully appreciates the need to build on the spirit of cooperation which emerged from UNISPACE III. In November 1999, the European States gathered to analyze the results of the conference and to set a course for their future participation in the United Nations Programme on Space Applications (UNPSA), which is mainly done through ESA, and for their participation in the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS), which is done through coordination among ESA Member States. This article presents the authors’ personal accounts of the results of the European efforts around UNISPACE III and shows how ‘European foreign policy’ can work in international space policy. It also seeks to illustrate Europe's commitment to putting space technology to work for the benefit of development throughout the world.     

Financing of space assets

The commercialization of space activities would increase if countries or companies could get more financial support. Space activities involve a high level of risk, however, which is why financial institutions are reluctant to advance credit. The International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (Unidroit) is interested in finding legal ways to satisfy commercial and financial needs by improving creditors’ guarantees and it has been proposing a draft Protocol on matters concerning space assets. This article aims to show why this subject has attracted the attention of both developing and developed countries. It also attempts to predict the consequences of the Protocol for space activities in developing countries.     

Legal regulation of space activities in Russia

Space activities in the former USSR were regulated by numerous decisions and regulations, most of them inaccessible to the public. But despite its important space programme the state had no specific space legislation. The country's lawyers for years argued the necessity for a unified space act and the creation of a space agency. The authors of this article discuss the regulation of space activities since the break-up of the USSR. The situation is considered in two aspects: the legal regulation of cooperation within the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in the exploration and use of outer space, and the legal and organizational bases of space activities in Russia after the creation of the Russian Space Agency in 1992. Appropriate agreements and other legal documents are considered.     

The Columbus programme : European steps towards the considered development of near-Earth space

The European Space Agency's Columbus Programme is nearing the end of its study phase and European ministers now need to take decisions on proceeding with the development phase. Columbus is directed towards the creation of an autonomous European space capability, and at the same time towards furthering genuine partnership with the USA on the international Space Station. This article reviews the elements which make up the Columbus Programme, and examines their probable developments over the next few years. The need for ESA to ensure coherence among the major European space initiatives is stressed.     

Law aboard the space station

For over two decades, multilateral treaties have governed the spaceborne activities of nations in a variety of situations. In recent years, however, it has been apparent that a legal vacuum exists concerning the activities of individual citizens who are sent into space by the spacefaring nations. Few laws exist which are specifically intended to regulate private individuals and entities in space. This situation has led to uncertainty for potential participants in NASA's international Space Station programme. Moreover, it now appears that the Intergovernmental Agreement concerning the Space Station may not solve the problem.     

Trends in the global space arena – Impact on Africa and Africa's response

Since the establishment of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Exploration and Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) in 1959, many actions that affect the advancement of the space frontier have been taken, within and outside COPUOS, in the interest of the global community, but without much input from Africa. Yet a number of African countries have joined those with assets in space, albeit without the necessary infrastructure on the ground. These actions vary in scope, in importance and in participation; however, they affect us all. Examples include the legal instruments that are in operation today for the exploration and peaceful uses of outer space, sustainability of the outer space environment and the Global Exploration Strategy– Framework for Coordination (GES–FC), conceived by 14 spacefaring nations; this laid out the details needed for an active global space exploration programme. This paper reflects on existing space-related regional cooperation arrangements at the inter-governmental level, including the African Leadership Conference on Space Science and Technology for Sustainable Development (ALC). Noting that, despite UN General Assembly endorsement of the need for developing countries to have access to the International Space Station (ISS), almost all in Africa have not, it asks what Africa might gain from such an experience. The paper concludes with an examination of where and why Africa needs to focus its immediate space-related efforts – on the ground here on Earth or in outer space?