Planning for the international space year

Preparations and proposals for the 1992 International Space Year are being made which cover a wide range of activities, organizations and nations; the momentum is building. There is an urgent need for an informal and independent ISY Steering Committee to legitimize the ISY and catalyse activities. With creativity and international cooperation, the International Space Year could be the most inspiring and transforming activity of the space age.     

An ISY policy for developing and newly industrialized countries

One state policy for International Space Year (ISY) is to pay special attention to the needs of developing countries while planning ISY activities. This article provides a historical context for assessing ISY as an opportunity to turn this policy into practice. A survey of experts involved in ISY planning was undertaken and the results include six recommendations for overcoming the obstacles to developing countries' full participation in ISY: (1) funding from international organizations and national foreign assistance agencies must increase substantially; (2) more attention must be given to improving the flow of information and communication about ISY; (3) education and training opportunities must be made available to a wide audience of developing country participants; (4) steps must be taken now to relieve the political and socioeconomic tensions that exist between North and South, particularly as they relate to ISY; (5) inadequacies in infrastructure must be considered; and (6) data-related obstacles must be examined.     

Changing patterns of international cooperation in space: The Soviet factor

The new Soviet glasnost regarding international cooperation in space will clearly be one of several factors affecting traditional patterns of cooperation in the future. This article examines how the Soviet posture towards cooperation in international space ventures has changed, why the changes have occurred, and the probable consequences of those changes on traditional patterns of international cooperation in space.     

Taking a common-pool resources approach to space sustainability: A framework and potential policies

This paper examines Nobel Prize Winner Elinor Ostrom's principles for sustainable governance of common-pool resources (CPR), capturing the best practices of CPRs over the years, which avoid the “Tragedy of the Commons” without being either completely privatized or controlled by a Leviathan entity. Ostrom's principles highlight, inter alia, the need for clear boundary definitions, rules tailored to fit the domain, who has a say in formulation of collective-choice agreements and operational rules, monitoring of behavior, graduated penalties, and conflict resolution mechanisms. In the context of the space domain they highlight issues such as the definition of where space begins, gaps in the existing liability regime, the concept of collaborative space situational awareness, and how best to include emerging and developing space actors in negotiations and decision making. The paper concludes that Ostrom's principles highlight specific areas on which to focus initial space sustainability efforts and national and international policy. It also recommends further analysis into how best to translate her principles to the space domain, where they may not be wholly applicable because of the unique nature of space, and how to evolve space governance institutions and mechanisms to best suit the unique environment of outer space.     

Russia's resurgence: Prospects for space policy and international cooperation

Based on a joint study initiated in 2007–2008 by the Policy planning staff (CAP) of the French Foreign Ministry and the space agency CNES, which brought together experts, researchers and industry insiders, this article considers the factors behind Russia's recent resurgence and the possible revival of its space programme. It examines how far the latter will require international cooperation in order to progress further and discusses likely areas of profitable collaboration with Europe in general and France in particular, given that country's long history of space cooperation with Russia and the need in the mid-term future to share the burden of developing ambitious new space programs. While there is in principle much potential, especially in the area of space transportation, there are also numerous challenges and uncertainties. How these are resolved will affect the level and success of any cooperative efforts of both sides.     

China''s space policy: review and prospects

This article reviews the current status of the Chinese space programme, covering its military origins, launchers, applications satellites, manned spaceflight and exploration. It examines the growing commercialization of China's space activities and how far this is likely to be successful, especially in the light of MTCR constraints and other legal regulations. It is nonetheless concluded that commercialization, along with joint ventures with foreign companies, has been crucial to the development of China's space programme. However, the country still lacks the resources to become a first-rank space power.     

History and impact of the 1996 UN declaration on ‘space benefits’

At its 1996/1997 session, the UN General Assembly adopted by consensus Resolution 51/122, containing a Declaration on international cooperation in space. This Declaration finalizes the agenda item which has become known as ‘Space Benefits’ in the UNCOPUOS Legal Subcommittee. It provides an authoritative interpretation of the cooperation principle in Article I of the Outer Space Treaty and should thereby put an end to North-South confrontation over the question of shaping the international order for space activities. This article traces the history of the run-up to adoption of the Resolution, analyses how it came to be accepted by all sides and examines its likely impact.     

Earthly environmentalism and the space exploration movement, 1960–1990: A study in irresolution

Little analysis exists of the interaction between the two most influential modern science-based social movements: space exploration and environmentalism. Since 1970 the term “Spaceship Earth” has been in common usage and the notion that the world requires careful stewardship has been acknowledged. Yet NASA had comparatively little to do with this important process of conceptual change for decades. It was meteorologists and oceanographers, among others, who established new government agencies including the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to pioneer areas like climatology. This paper examines how NASA’s view of itself as a “space” agency long underplayed Earth as a part of the Solar System. Conceptual conflicts continue, to the detriment of political and public support for space.     

Developments in space activities in Poland

Poland has a long-standing tradition in space activities. Polish institutions have participated as co-investigators in almost all European Space Agency (ESA) science projects, as well as on many other missions. However, the first Polish satellite (PW-SAT) was only launched in 2012. Poland was one of the first Eastern European countries to conclude a Cooperation Agreement with ESA in the peaceful use of outer space; it was signed in 1994 and followed by a second in January 2002. Negotiations on Polish membership in the ESA were started in autumn of 2011, and ended in April 2012. Following ratification of the agreement, Poland officially became the 20th Member State of ESA on 19 November 2012. This article examines how Poland is setting its way as a space nation. It describes recent developments in the Polish space programme, including the road to Poland's full membership in the European Space Agency.     

The new international political and strategic context for space policies

For several years there has been substantial growth in the ‘nationalist’ nature of space programmes around the world, traditionally focused on unaligned useful space applications. It seems that China, India, in the future South Korea, Malaysia and others will set themselves objectives of a more political colouring symbolising national pride in their programmes. At the same time, some countries, like Iran, make no attempt to hide their plans to have their own space defence capabilities. The absolute pre-eminence of the USA, Russia and Europe is starting to fade. For emerging countries space resources are becoming an integral component of their strategic position or an asymmetrical capability aimed at weakening the credibility of advantages held by potential rivals. This article examines the new context and the role that various countries are playing in it. It is how space policies should be determined in order to understand their politico-strategic determinants and to highlight their characteristics. Nevertheless, the competitive spirit is not the only possible way. Permanent space infrastructures could also be organised globally, as ‘global public goods’, to contribute to answering questions related to major issues facing humanity.     

Estonian space policy and governance in the international space community

Despite the global financial crisis, which dominated 2008 and the first half of 2009, Estonia has decided to invest in a space programme. Estonia has extensive experience in the field of astrophysics and has developed capacities in various areas of remote sensing applications. It is on its way to becoming an active ESA partner. This article examines how Estonia is setting its way as a space nation and describes the new context and the role that various bodies are playing in the process. The paper describes the vision and strategy for space activities in the country. An overview of the possible measures to be taken to support the enterprises and scientific institutions with the highest potential for space cooperation is discussed, as are various risks in making progress in the space field, and measures for overcoming these.     

Assuring the sustainability of space activities

The growth of new space systems and the continued creation of orbital debris could in a few years make activities in Earth orbit unsustainable, so finding cost-effective ways to sustain space activities in Earth orbit is essential. Because outer space activities serve the needs of the military–intelligence, civil, and commercial communities, each with their own requirements, creating the necessary international agreements for reaching and maintaining a condition of sustainability will not be easy. This paper summarizes the primary issues for the international space community regarding our future ability to reap the benefit of space systems in Earth orbit. It explores several of the efforts to develop international agreements that would lead to or support the sustainability of space activities and examines the benefits and drawbacks of each approach. In particular, it reviews progress within the UN COPUOS, and examines the EU's proposal for an international Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities. It also notes the need for states to establish or expand their own space legal infrastructure to conform to the UN treaties and guidelines for space activities.     

Japan,Ballistic Missile Defence and remilitarisation

Japan's future trajectory in security policy and the extent of deviation from the post-war course of a constrained military stance have been the source of constant academic and policy debate. Japanese policy-makers have maintained that national security policy has shown no fundamental deviation, and that this can be benchmarked against a range of constant anti-militaristic principles. The advent of BMD, however, poses significant questions over whether Japan is continuing to follow a similar security trajectory. This article examines how BMD has challenged four key anti-militaristic principles—the non-exercise of collective self-defence, the non-military use of space, the ban on the export of weapons technology, and strict civilian control of the military—and uses this assessment to judge how BMD is driving remilitarisation. It concludes that BMD's impact is highly significant in transgressing these anti-militaristic principles and is thus indicating a more remilitarised security path for Japan developing now and in the future.     

Organizing space cooperation in the Asia-Pacific region

The time for regional cooperation in the Asia-Pacific region is now ripe. Steps have been taken towards this via a workshop sponsored by China - previously wary of cooperation but now seeming to acknowledge that, along with interested countries, it could contribute more to space in the region. The author examines areas of shared interest over which parties might collaborate and the best way to achieve this: a gradual approach emulating the development (but not the present configuration) of ESA is recommended. Finally, he examines the legal framework within which cooperation might function, using a liaison committee to formulate and coordiante proposals. Action must be taken now if the region is not to fall behind in the development of space technologies.     

Is space an environment?

Expanding the human sphere of influence beyond Earth presents philosophical questions that also have important practical applications. Do we need to worry about the moral implications of our actions in the vastness of space? What kind of explorers will we be - and what kind of explorers should we be? The answers to these basic questions depend greatly on what moral status is assigned to space; how it is conceptualized. This article sets forth arguments both for and against considering space as an environment, that is, as a place deserving of ethical treatment in the same way that terrestrial environments are valued and respected in environmental ethics. It sketches some answers to how space exploration could meet high ethical standards and puts forward the notion of environmental ‘virtue ethics’.     

Earth observation and UK science policy

This paper examines the way in which Earth observation is linked to UK science policy through the 1993 UK science White Paper and subsequent policy statements, and how the central theme of partnership has been developed in practice. An example of crop yield prediction is given to illustrate the strengths and the weaknesses of the approach. The UK science and space strategies are set in the context of the European Strategy for Space and links are made to the US global change research strategy.     

The US–Europe technology gap in space transportation: the view from the USA

This paper examines the debate within the USA over how to meet the perceived competition from the successful European Ariane launcher and the loss of US market share for space launch services that it represented. In particular, it explores the origins of the 1983 Reagan Administration policy to turn over expendable launch vehicle production and operation to private industry. The Administration's other decisions to: (1) use the Space Shuttle to fly all government payloads, and (2) allow NASA to market Space Shuttle services commercially, conflicted with this commercialization policy. These policies effectively caused US industry to delay entry into the international competition for launch services until after the loss of the Space Shuttle Challenger in January 1986.     

Improving international space cooperation: Considerations for the USA

In 2000 there were 40 different countries that had registered space agencies. By 2009 that number had continued to grow to 55. This article discusses how cooperation allows a nation to leverage resource and reduce risk; improve global engagement; and enhance diplomatic prestige of engaged states, political sustainability and workforce stability. The obstacles and impediments to cooperation are substantial, and are manifested through various anti-collaborative behaviors. To achieve success, these obstacles and impediments must be understood and confronted. The article examines the substantial challenges posed by technology transfer constraints, international and domestic politics, and exceptionalism perspectives. Given the imperative to cooperate, four frameworks (cooperation, augmentation, interdependence, and integration) can be employed to overcome these challenges and achieve success.     

Examining the effects of anti-space weaponization arguments in the media: Some experimental findings from Canada

This study examines how political activists are framing the space weaponization debate in Canada and whether their arguments can influence public attitudes and perceptions about the issue. Eighty university students from two undergraduate courses were recruited as participants in a quasi-experiment. One class (n = 38) was exposed to the documentary Masters of Space, an episode of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's program The Nature of Things, and another class (n = 42) served as the control group. Pre-test and post-test questionnaires were used to measure the effects of viewing anti-weaponization arguments in the media, while also controlling for the influence of prior beliefs and background characteristics of participants. Results suggest that visually depicting the use of satellite technology in society can convince viewers that satellites are important to their way of life, but not necessarily to the defense of North America. Framing missile defense as a ‘space weapon in disguise’ also seemed to raise opposition to Canada's participation in continental missile defense. The findings, meanwhile, indicate that viewers respond strongly to the issue of space debris and that mobilizing support for joint military space projects may best be achieved by emphasizing the usefulness of these projects for locating and tracking such debris. In the end, media exposure seemed to help legitimize anti-weaponization arguments based more on rational self-interests than on idealistic beliefs. These findings can have implications for the way space policies are communicated to the public.     

Canada's early space policy development 1958–1974

In the absence of a mature body of literature on the origins and evolution of the Canadian space program, recent official publications have arbitrarily chosen 1974, the year that Canada's civilian space policy was ratified in the House of Commons, as the popular date of origin. However, this start date ignores several significant policy documents that influenced Canada's space program development prior to that year. This article examines policy that shaped Canada's space program during the ‘golden age’ of space exploration (1958–1974), and will demonstrate that the true origins of the Canadian space program date back much earlier that the current perception.