What we knew,what we know and what we will know about cosmic gamma-ray bursts

The paper is devoted to the present crisis in the field of cosmic gamma-ray bursts. There are two different paradigms of the phenomenon, which have practically equal numbers of supporters. The cosmological one associates bursts with collisions of compact objects at distances up to those with red-shifts of about 1–2. The galactic paradigm assumes that bursts are generated by neutron stars in the extended galactic halo. The present situation is shown to be very close to the ultimate establishment of the paradigm of the origin of cosmic gamma-ray bursts.     

Konus-W gamma-ray burst experiment for the GGS Wind spacecraft

The Konus-W experiment to be flown on board the GGS-Wind spacecraft is designed to observe gamma-ray bursts and solar flares with moderate spectral and high time resolution. Two large scintillators are used to provide omnidirectional sensitivity. The primary scientific objectives are the study of the continuum energy spectra and spectral features of these events in the energy range of 10 keV to 10 MeV, as well as their time histories in soft, medium, and hard energy bands, with a time resolution to 2 ms.     

High-Energy Atmospheric Physics: Terrestrial Gamma-Ray Flashes and Related Phenomena

It is now well established that both thunderclouds and lightning routinely emit x-rays and gamma-rays. These emissions appear over wide timescales, ranging from sub-microsecond bursts of x-rays associated with lightning leaders, to sub-millisecond bursts of gamma-rays seen in space called terrestrial gamma-ray flashes, to minute long glows from thunderclouds seen on the ground and in or near the cloud by aircraft and balloons. In particular, terrestrial gamma-ray flashes (TGFs), which are thought to be emitted by thunderclouds, are so bright that they sometimes saturate detectors on spacecraft hundreds of kilometers away. These TGFs also generate energetic secondary electrons and positrons that are detected by spacecraft in the inner magnetosphere. It is generally believed that these x-ray and gamma-ray emissions are generated, via bremsstrahlung, by energetic runaway electrons that are accelerated by electric fields in the atmosphere. In this paper, we review this newly emerging field of High-Energy Atmospheric Physics, including the production of runaway electrons, the production and propagation of energetic radiation, and the effects of both on atmospheric electrodynamics.     

Mechanisms of gamma-ray generation by neutron stars

Some astrophysical mechanisms responsible for gamma-ray bursts on or near neutron stars are briefly reviewed.     

K. Koyama, S. Kitamoto and M. Itoh (eds.), The Hot Universe, IAU Symposium

This book concerns the publication of the proceedings of an IAU Symposium held in Tokio in the summer of 1997. As implied by the title, it provides an overall review of our knowledge on all aspects of high-energy phenomena occurring in the universe obtained via the observations in X- and gamma-rays with orbiting satellites. It contains 44 invited (4 pages each) and 132 (2 pages each) contributed papers covering: Sun, stars, supernovae and their remnants, galaxies and their clusters, white dwarfs and neutron stars, black hole binaries, active galactic nuclei, gamma-ray bursts, large scale structure and hot intergalactic medium, and a chapter on future space programs in X- and gamma-ray astronomy. Many of the contributions have since appeared in the astronomical literature. The invited reviews, although very concise, are generally valuable in presenting the most relevant points of the various subjects. The book is for professional astronomers and may serve as a quick and very useful reference to becoming acquainted with the main developments in the field of high-energy astrophysics beginning of 1998. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

INTEGRAL: Science Highlights and Future Prospects

ESA??s hard X-ray and soft gamma-ray observatory INTEGRAL is covering the 3 keV to 10 MeV energy band, with excellent sensitivity during long and uninterrupted observations of a large field of view (??100 square degrees), with ms time resolution and keV energy resolution. It links the energy band of pointed soft X-ray missions such as XMM-Newton with that of high-energy gamma-ray space missions such as Fermi and ground based TeV observatories. Key results obtained so far include the first sky map in the light of the 511 keV annihilation emission, the discovery of a new class of high mass X-ray binaries and detection of polarization in cosmic high energy radiation. For the foreseeable future, INTEGRAL will remain the only observatory allowing the study of nucleosynthesis in our Galaxy, including the long overdue next nearby supernova, through high-resolution gamma-ray line spectroscopy. Science results to date and expected for the coming mission years span a wide range of high-energy astrophysics, including studies of the distribution of positrons in the Galaxy; reflection of gamma-rays off clouds in the interstellar medium near the Galactic Centre; studies of black holes and neutron stars particularly in high- mass systems; gamma-ray polarization measurements for X-ray binaries and gamma-ray bursts, and sensitive detection capabilities for obscured active galaxies with more than 1000 expected to be found until 2014. This paper summarizes scientific highlights obtained since INTEGRAL??s launch in 2002, and outlines prospects for the INTEGRAL mission.     

Particle Acceleration in Relativistic Outflows

In this review we confront the current theoretical understanding of particle acceleration at relativistic outflows with recent observational results on various source classes thought to involve such outflows, e.g. gamma-ray bursts, active galactic nuclei, and pulsar wind nebulae. We highlight the possible contributions of these sources to ultra-high-energy cosmic rays.     

Background in space-borne low-energy γ-ray telescopes

The scope of observational astronomy in the gamma-ray region of the spectrum is vast. The intimate relationship of these energetic photons with their parent particles and fields provides a direct probe of the high-energy physics phenomena which take place throughout the Universe. As an added bonus the gamma-ray domain contains a wealth of diagnostic information within discrete emission lines, which are derived from a variety of processes including nuclear de-excitation, cyclotron emission, and matter-antimatter annihilation. Consequently observational gamma-ray astronomy addresses directly some of the most fundamental problems in both physics and astrophysics. However, low-energy gamma-rays are the most penetrating photons encountered in nature, and, whilst this factor provides a deep probe of cosmic objects, it ensures that gamma-ray telescopes are massive, both in terms of the stopping power required in the detector systems as well as their shields. Furthermore, the intimate relationship of gamma-rays with nuclear de-excitations ensures that the telescope itself becomes a bright source of background noise, a factor which is aggravated by the necessity that gamma-ray telescopes are obliged to operate in regions pervaded by intense particle fluxes. The background noise experienced in gamma-ray telescopes is, therefore, both high and extremely complex in its origin, and due to the high-energy content of individual photons, their numbers which arrive from distant cosmic sources are necessarily low, even for those objects which radiate the bulk of their power at gamma-ray wavelengths. Current gamma-ray telescopes are thus obliged to operate under conditions of intrinsically low signal-to-noise ratio and it is vital that techniques are developed which reduce the background noise level to more acceptable levels, thus improving the sensitivity. To achieve such a goal, a thorough understanding of the sources of background noise is first required before effective measures can be taken for its reduction.In this paper the sources of background noise are reviewed with the aim to obtain a quantitative analysis of individual contributions, as derived from the various classes of irradiative particle fluxes. The estimated contributions from the individual sources are combined in order to evaluate the total background level of a given telescope in a specific radiation environment, which for practical considerations generally relates to the orbit choice and detailed design of the telescope. The published background noise spectra of a number of past missions are compared to the computed values so as to provide an assessment of the validity of the overall calculations. The level of agreement achieved indicates that a good understanding of the sources of background noise exists. Finally some possibilities for the improvement of the sensitivity of future gammaray telescopes, in terms of the reduction of the background noise, are discussed.     

The Swift Ultra-Violet/Optical Telescope

The Ultra-Violet/Optical Telescope (UVOT) is one of three instruments flying aboard the Swift Gamma-ray Observatory. It is designed to capture the early (∼1 min) UV and optical photons from the afterglow of gamma-ray bursts in the 170–600 nm band as well as long term observations of these afterglows. This is accomplished through the use of UV and optical broadband filters and grisms. The UVOT has a modified Ritchey–Chrétien design with micro-channel plate intensified charged-coupled device detectors that record the arrival time of individual photons and provide sub-arcsecond positioning of sources. We discuss some of the science to be pursued by the UVOT and the overall design of the instrument.     

Compton Polarimetry in Gamma-Ray Astronomy

The analysis of compact astronomical objects has generally dealt with the physical properties of the source within a two-parameter space, which is defined by the spectral characteristics and time variability. This approach often leads to the situation whereby two or more very different models can explain the observations successfully. Polarimetric observations have the diagnostic potential to discriminate between the different compact source models and can offer a unique insight into the geometrical nature of the emission zones. To date, however, no polarization observation in the gamma-ray energy domain has been successfully performed, due to the difficulties in making polarimetric measurements in this high-energy region of the spectrum. In this paper the polarized gamma-ray emission mechanisms are reviewed with the emphasis on their detectable characteristics. Potential astronomical sites in which these emission mechanisms may be at work are discussed. Observational results obtained in other wavebands and theoretical predications made for some of the most likely astronomical sources of polarization are reviewed. Compton polarimetry has long been used in the field of nuclear gamma-ray spectroscopy in the laboratory. The operational principle behind all generations of nuclear gamma-ray polarimeters has been to measure the asymmetry in the azimuthal distribution of the scattered photons. However none of the polarimeters designed for laboratory experiments will be sensitive enough to observe even the strongest astronomical source. In the past few years there have been a number of innovative developments aimed at the construction of astronomical gamma-ray polarimeters, either as dedicated experiments or in missions with polarimetric capability. The designs of all the polarimeters are based on either discrete or continuous position sensitive detector planes. In this paper the data analysis techniques associated with this type of polarimeter are discussed as well as methods of removing some of the systematic effects introduced by a non-ideal detector response function and observation conditions. Laboratory tests of these new polarimetric techniques are reviewed. They demonstrate the feasibility of building a suitably sensitive astronomical gamma-ray polarimeter. Optimization of the design of pixellated detector array based polarimeters is also addressed. The INTEGRAL mission, which is to be launched by ESA in the year 2001, is the most likely telescope to perform the first successful gamma-ray polarization observation. The polarimetric characteristics of the two main instruments on board INTEGRAL are evaluated and their sensitivities to a wide range of potentially polarized gamma-ray sources are estimated.     

Nuclear processes and accelerated particles in solar flares

Nuclear processes and particle acceleration in solar flares are reviewed. The theory of gamma-ray and neutron production is discussed and results of calculations are compared to gamma-ray, neutron, and charged-particle observations from solar flares. The implications of these comparisons on particle energy spectra, total numbers, anisotropies, electron-to-proton ratios, as well as on acceleration mechanisms and the interaction site, are presented. The information on elemental and isotopic abundances derived from gamma-ray observations is compared to abundances obtained from escaping accelerated particles and other sources.NAS/NRC Resident Research Associate.     

Large-scale structure of the Galaxy and high-energy gamma-ray observations

Detailed information on the high-energy gamma-ray emission from our Galaxy has become available through the two dedicated satellite missions SAS-2 and COS-B. The consistency of the two datasets is discussed; while a satisfying general agreement is observed, a few distinct discrepancies point to possible time variations within the compact source component of the total galactic emission. The bulk of emission appears very well correlated to the column density of the total interstellar gas, as traced by radio observations of Hi and CO. The gamma-ray observations exclude the possibility that H₂ dominates in the inner Galaxy, its mass should not exceed the mass existing in the form of Hi. Neither a significant galactocentric gradient of the (high-energy) cosmic-ray flux density is suggested inside the solar circle (outside a decrease is needed), nor a linear coupling between the cosmic rays and the gas is indicated by the gamma-ray data. The systematic variation with longitude of the spectrum of the gamma-ray emission points to an increased flux of cosmic-ray electrons in the 100 MeV to 1 GeV energy range in regions where dense clouds are concentrated. The variation could as well be due to the largely unresolved population of compact gamma-ray objects.     

Observational studies of gamma-rays and neutrons from solar flares

Gamma-ray observations from HINOTORI satellite and possible neutron observations from the Tokyo neutron monitor are reviewed. Time histories of gamma-ray and X-ray emissions for both typical impulsive and gradual flares are discussed in connection with the particle acceleration time. The gamma-ray spectral hardening observed around 400 keV is explained from superimposition of two different electron bremsstrahlung spectra. Proton-energy spectra derived from the gamma-ray observations are compared with the solar energetic particle spectra in interplanetary space. The weak correlation between the gamma-ray fluence and the proton flux is discussed in connection with the particle trapping and escaping in the flare region. The limb darkening of the 2.22 MeV line resulting from neutron-proton capture is interpreted in terms of the attenuation by the Compton scattering in the photosphere. Possible solar neutron events recorded by the Tokyo neutron monitor are presented and the correlation between the gamma-ray fluence and the neutron fluence are described.     

Solar flares as sources of energetic particles

In this paper a review is presented of the present status of our knowledge of solar flare phenomena with special emphasis on the production of suprathermal particles and their solar effects. Of these energetic particles electrons play an important role since they produce the X-ray and radiobursts observed during many flares. Also, during their slowing down to thermal energies they contribute to the heating of localized regions in the solar atmosphere, through energy exchange with the ambient electrons. Observable radiations of energetic protons, and other nuclei, are produced through nuclear interactions leading to the emissions of gamma-ray lines. Detectable fluxes of these gamma-ray lines are produced only in the most powerful flares. Also the nuclei that enter into deeper layers of the solar atmosphere transfer most of their kinetic energy to the ambient plasma.     

Solar Radio Bursts with Drifting Stripes in Emission and Absorption

This review covers fairly comprehensively experimental and theoretical research on the fine structure of types zebra pattern (ZP) and fiber bursts (FB) in solar type II + IV radio bursts. The basic attention is given to the latest experimental data. A comparative analysis of several recent solar type IV radio outbursts with these fine structure in dynamical radio spectra is carried out using available ground-based and satellite data (Yohkoh, SOHO, TRACE, RHESSI). New data on microwave zebra structures and fiber bursts testifies that they are analogous to similar structures observed at meter wavelengths. The discovery of the superfine structure, in the form of millisecond spikes is the most significant new effect in the cm range. All basic theoretical models of the zebra pattern and fiber bursts are discussed critically. Two main models are studied for their interpretation: (i) interactions between electrostatic plasma waves and whistlers, (ii) radio emission at double plasma resonance (DPR). The relative significance of several possible mechanisms remains uncertain.     

Protons in flares

This work addresses the role of non-thermal protons as a means of transporting energy in stellar atmospheres. The most dramatic transient visible phenomena are flares, the best studied of which are from the Sun. It is believed that energetic particles take a fundamental part in flare development, but it is controversial as to whether protons or electrons play the dominant role. This review is aimed at helping resolve the controversy. We start by outlining acceleration mechanisms for energetic particles, on the premise that the acceleration site is in the corona. The propagation of a proton beam through the atmosphere is discussed, together with the radiation signatures it would produce. Chromospheric evaporation is expected as the beam reaches the dense part of the atmosphere. Direct observational evidence for energetic protons is reviewed, from gamma-ray production involving energies >30 MeV to H polarization, which is significant at energies 100 keV. Proton beams can be detected in the corona via slowly-drifting type III bursts, while they can be directly sampled by spacecraft and, at energies >1 GeV, by detectors on the Earth. A number of key flare observations and energy arguments are debated from the viewpoint of protons versus electrons. The conclusion is that primary non-thermal protons are much more important, in terms of total energy, than non-thermal electrons in flares, and that the bulk of the energetic electrons are secondary.     

Some problems of very high-energy gamma-ray astronomy

The latest achievements in very high-energy (VHE) gamma-ray astronomy are discussed. Types of candidate objects for the sources of very high-energy gamma-quanta are considered, and pulsars, as the most probable ones, are anticipated. The objectives of VHE gamma-ray astronomy are presented, outlining the pressing need for complex observations of individual objects.     

Gamma-ray line astronomy

Recent gamma-ray line observations and their interpretations are reviewed and prospects for future line detections are discussed.     

Solar Ultraviolet Bursts

The term “ultraviolet (UV) burst” is introduced to describe small, intense, transient brightenings in ultraviolet images of solar active regions. We inventorize their properties and provide a definition based on image sequences in transition-region lines. Coronal signatures are rare, and most bursts are associated with small-scale, canceling opposite-polarity fields in the photosphere that occur in emerging flux regions, moving magnetic features in sunspot moats, and sunspot light bridges. We also compare UV bursts with similar transition-region phenomena found previously in solar ultraviolet spectrometry and with similar phenomena at optical wavelengths, in particular Ellerman bombs. Akin to the latter, UV bursts are probably small-scale magnetic reconnection events occurring in the low atmosphere, at photospheric and/or chromospheric heights. Their intense emission in lines with optically thin formation gives unique diagnostic opportunities for studying the physics of magnetic reconnection in the low solar atmosphere. This paper is a review report from an International Space Science Institute team that met in 2016–2017.     

The relevance of molecular observations to gamma-ray astronomy

The interaction of cosmic rays with interstellar clouds may produce some of the observed gamma-ray sources. The use of molecular observations to estimate the cloud masses, which are used to derive cosmic-ray fluxes, is reviewed. Molecular diagnostics of high cosmic-ray ionization rates are discussed, and a detailed application of those diagnostics is summarised and presented as evidence that second-order Fermi acceleration is important in old supernova remnants and can produce cosmic rays of too low energy to induce gamma-ray emission.Proceedings of the XVIII General Assembly of the IAU: Galactic Astrophysics and Gamma-Ray Astronomy, held at Patras, Greece, 19 August 1982.Royal Society Jaffé Donation Fellow.