Technical evaluation of additive manufacturing technologies for in-situ fabrication with lunar regolith

In-Situ Fabrication and Repair can significantly reduce the construction cost of a permanent Moon base by using additive manufacturing (AM) and exploiting local resources instead of bringing all the required materials from Earth. In this article, we evaluate alternative additive manufacturing technologies for building a lunar base and maintaining it across its lifecycle. We compare alternative 3D-printing techniques, already tested for manufacturing with simulants of lunar regolith, using energy, Earth-deliverables consumption, and compressive strength of the produced samples as figures of merit. Based on our analysis, we conclude that Cement Contour Crafting and Stereo-lithography AM techniques are the most promising solutions for the construction of outdoor lunar infrastructure and small precise parts and instruments, respectively.     

Estimation of optical maturity parameter for lunar soil characterization using Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3)

Prolonged exposure of the microscopic outer layer of the lunar surface to the space environment leads to the maturation of the surface. Maturation can be quantified and it may be expressed in terms of optical maturity (OMAT). Optical maturity estimations are very much helpful in the identification and mapping of the major minerals present on the lunar regolith. Estimation of the maturation and mineral mapping using remote sensing techniques are achieved, by coupling spectral reflectance of the lunar surface with an optimized origin. The present work estimates the optical maturity and Ferrous oxide content of the Goldschmidt and Schrodinger craters, through the recalibration of the classical method of Lucey et al. (2000a) with an origin of (0.08, 1.18) and Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) data. The overall recalibration results assure that the craters are highly matured.     

铲挖式表层月壤采样器设计与试验

针对月球表层土壤的采样任务,设计了一种搭载于机械臂末端的采样器。基于离散元手段,利用Scott真实月壤微型三轴压缩试验数据,完成仿真散体颗粒特性参数匹配,开展了采样器铲取、挖取采样过程的仿真分析,获得作业过程采样器的动力学特性。此外,开发了采样器性能测试系统,针对不同模拟月壤对象进行了采样试验,测试获得了采样器采样能力随深度及月壤硬度的变化情况,得到采样器操作参数的可行区域。采样器能够实现铲取、挖取和封装容器转移多重任务,研究工作为中国未来的月面采样任务提供方案借鉴和技术支撑。     

A theoretical assessment of the feasibility of potential Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter radio occultation observations of the lunar ionosphere

The existence of a “dense” lunar ionosphere has been controversial for decades. Positive ions produced from the lunar surface and exosphere are inferred to have densities that are $?$${10}^6$ – ${10}^7$ m^?3 near the surface and smaller at higher altitudes, yet electron densities derived from radio occultation measurements occasionally exceed these values by orders of magnitude. For example, about 4% of the single-spacecraft radio occultation measurements from Kaguya/SELENE were consistent with peak electron densities of $~$$3\times {10}^8$ m^?3. Space plasmas should be neutral on macroscopic scales, so this represents a substantial discrepancy. Aditional observations of electron densities in the lunar ionosphere are critical to resolving this longstanding paradox. Here we theoretically assess whether radio occultation observations using two-way coherent S-band radio signals from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) spacecraft could provide useful measurements of electron densities in the lunar ionosphere. We predict the uncertainty in a single LRO radio occultation measurement of electron density to be $~$$3\times {10}^8$ m^?3, comparable to occasional observations by Kaguya/SELENE of a dense lunar ionosphere. Thus an individual profile from LRO is unlikely to reliably detect the lunar ionosphere; however, averages of multiple ($~$10) LRO profiles acquired under similar geophysical and viewing conditions should be able to make reliable detections. An observing rate of six ingress occultations per day ($~$2000 per year) could be achieved with minimal impact on current LRO operations. This rate compares favorably with the 378 observations reported from the single-spacecraft experiment on Kaguya/SELENE between November 2007 and June 2009. The large number of observations possible for LRO would be sufficient to permit wide-ranging investigations of spatial and temporal variations in the poorly understood lunar ionosphere. These findings strengthen efforts to conduct such observations with LRO.     

Concept of wireless sensor network for future in-situ exploration of lunar ice using wireless impedance sensor

It is known that a wireless sensor network uses some sort of sensors to detect a physical quantity of interest, in general. The wireless sensor network is a potential tool for exploring the difficult-to-access area on the earth and the concept may be extended to space applications in future. Recently, lunar water has been detected by a few lunar missions using remote sensing techniques. The lunar water is expected to be in the form of ice at very low temperatures of permanently dark regions on the moon. To support the remote observations and also to find out potential ice bearing sites on the moon, in-situ measurement of the lunar ice is essential. However, a rover may not be able to reach the permanently shadowed regions due to terrain irregularity. One possibility to access such areas is to use a wireless sensor network on the lunar surface.     

Identification and characterization of science-rich landing sites for lunar lander missions using integrated remote sensing observations

Despite more than 52 years of lunar exploration, a wide range of first-order scientific questions remain about the Moon’s formation, temporal evolution, and current surface and interior properties. Addressing many of these questions requires obtaining new in situ analyses or return of lunar surface or shallow subsurface samples, and hence rely on the selection of optimal landing sites. Here, we present an approach to optimize science-rich lunar landing site selection studies based on the integration of remote sensing observations. Currently available remote sensing data, as well as features of interest published in the recent literature, were integrated in a Geographic Information System. This numerical database contains geographic information about all these findings, which can be consulted and used to simultaneously display multiple features and parameters of interest. To illustrate our approach, we identified the optimal landing sites to address the two top priorities (or goals) relative to Concept 3 of the National Research Council of the National Academies (2007), namely to ‘Determine the extent and composition of the primary feldspathic crust, (ur)KREEP layer, and other products of differentiation’ and to ‘Inventory the variety, age, distribution and origin of lunar rock types’. We review site requirements and propose possible landing sites for both these goals. We identified 29 sites that best fulfill both these goals and compare them with the landing sites of planned future lunar lander missions. Finally, we detail two of these science-rich sites (Aristarchus and Theophilus craters) which are particularly accessible through their location on the nearside.     

Traverses for the ISECG-GER design reference mission for humans on the lunar surface

This study explores the Design Reference Mission (DRM) architecture developed by Hufenbach et al. (2015) as a prelude to the release of the 2018 Global Exploration Roadmap (GER) developed by the International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG). The focus of this study is the exploration of the south polar region of the Moon, a region that has not been visited by any human missions, yet exhibits a multitude of scientifically important locations – the investigation of which will address long standing questions in lunar research. This DRM architecture involves five landing sites (Malapert massif, South Pole/Shackleton crater, Schrödinger basin, Antoniadi crater, and the South Pole-Aitken basin center), to be visited in sequential years by crew, beginning in 2028. Two Lunar Electric Rovers (LER) are proposed to be tele-robotically operated between sites to rendez-vous with crew at the time of the next landing. With engineering parameters in mind we explore the feasibility of tele-robotic operation of these LERs between lunar landing sites, and identify potential high interest sampling locations en-route. Additionally, in-depth sample collection and return traverses are identified for each individual landing site across key geologic terrains that also detail crew Extra-Vehicular Activity (EVA). Exploration at and between landing sites is designed to address a suite of National Research Council (2007) scientific concepts.     

Simulation study for the determination of the lunar gravity field from PRARE-L tracking onboard the German LEO mission

A simulation study has been performed at GFZ Potsdam, which shows the anticipated improvement of the lunar gravity field model with respect to current (LP150Q model) or near-future (SELENE) knowledge in the framework of the planned German Lunar Explorations Orbiter (LEO) mission, based on PRARE-L (Precise Range And Range-rate Equipment – Lunar version) Satellite-to-Satellite (SST) and Satellite-Earth-Satellite (SEST) tracking observations. It is shown that the global mean error of the lunar gravity field can be reduced to less than 0.1 mGal at a spatial resolution of 50 km. In the spectral domain, this means a factor of 10 (long wavelengths) and some 100 (mid to short wavelengths) improvement as compared to predictions for SELENE or a factor of 1000 with respect to LP150Q. Furthermore, a higher spatial resolution of up to 28 km seems feasible and would correspond to a factor of 2–3 improvement of SELENE results. Moreover, PRARE-L is expected to derive the low-degree coefficients of the lunar gravity field with unprecedented accuracy. Considering long mission duration (at least 1 year is planned) this would allow for the first time a precise direct determination of the low-degree tidal Love numbers of the Moon and, in combination with high precision SEST, would provide an experimental basis to study relativistic effects such as the periselenium advance in the Earth–Moon system.     

Prospects in the orbital and rotational dynamics of the Moon with the advent of sub-centimeter lunar laser ranging

Lunar laser ranging (LLR) measurements are crucial for advanced exploration of the laws of fundamental gravitational physics and geophysics as well as for future human and robotic missions to the Moon. The corner-cube reflectors (CCR) currently on the Moon require no power and still work perfectly since their installation during the project Apollo era. Current LLR technology allows us to measure distances to the Moon with a precision approaching 1 mm. As NASA pursues the vision of taking humans back to the Moon, new, more precise laser ranging applications will be demanded, including continuous tracking from more sites on Earth, placing new CCR arrays on the Moon, and possibly installing other devices such as transponders, etc. for multiple scientific and technical purposes. Since this effort involves humans in space, then in all situations the accuracy, fidelity, and robustness of the measurements, their adequate interpretation, and any products based on them, are of utmost importance. Successful achievement of this goal strongly demands further significant improvement of the theoretical model of the orbital and rotational dynamics of the Earth–Moon system. This model should inevitably be based on the theory of general relativity, fully incorporate the relevant geophysical processes, lunar librations, tides, and should rely upon the most recent standards and recommendations of the IAU for data analysis. This paper discusses methods and problems in developing such a mathematical model. The model will take into account all the classical and relativistic effects in the orbital and rotational motion of the Moon and Earth at the sub-centimeter level. The model is supposed to be implemented as a part of the computer code underlying NASA Goddard’s orbital analysis and geophysical parameter estimation package GEODYN and the ephemeris package PMOE 2003 of the Purple Mountain Observatory. The new model will allow us to navigate a spacecraft precisely to a location on the Moon. It will also greatly improve our understanding of the structure of the lunar interior and the nature of the physical interaction at the core–mantle interface layer. The new theory and upcoming millimeter LLR will give us the means to perform one of the most precise fundamental tests of general relativity in the solar system.     

Titanium estimates of the central peaks of lunar craters: Implications for sub-surface lithology of moon

Central peaks of 24 lunar craters, having mafic rocks, were studied to estimate their average titanium content and infer the nature of the subsurface lithologies. Titanium contents were derived from Clementine UV–Vis data (415, 750 nm) following the approach of Lucey et al. [Lucey, P.G., Blewett, D.T. and Jolliff, B.L., Lunar iron and titanium abundance algorithms based on final processing of Clementine ultraviolet–visible images, J. Geophys. Res.106 (E8), 20297–20,305, 2000]. _TiO2${\mathrm{TiO}}_2$ content exceeding 1 wt% suggests presence of mantle derived mafic sub-surface rock types (plutonic/volcanic) within the central peaks. Even though, the algorithm used for deriving titanium content is susceptible to variation in topography and sun angle, especially at higher latitudes, careful selection and analyses of data for regions within the central peaks revealed compositional heterogeneities. The results indicate a preponderance of mafic lithologies with low _TiO2${\mathrm{TiO}}_2$ content (<1 wt%) in the central peaks of lunar craters populating the equatorial region. Average titanium content of central peaks can serve as a useful tracer for distinguishing mantle derived mafic subsurface lithologies from those formed during global magma ocean episode.     

Comparison study of ductile iron produced with Martian regolith harvested iron from ionic liquids and Bosch byproduct carbon for in-situ resource utilization versus commercially available 65-45-12 ductile iron

As researchers continue to study methods to facilitate long-term missions beyond low-Earth orbit, the ability to manufacture high-quality mechanical and structural components on the Lunar and Martian surfaces remains a crucial piece to the puzzle for a sustained presence. Due to the immense cost of sending supplies to extraterrestrial bodies, in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) methods are critical for the success and feasibility of these habitation missions. Ionic liquids (ILs) are currently being studied at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to harvest elemental metals from meteorites and regolith minerals. Additionally, the Bosch process is being explored as a life support system at MSFC for oxygen (O₂) regeneration, rendering a byproduct of elemental carbon (C). In this investigation, the viability of casting ductile iron (DI) using IL-sourced iron (IL-Fe) and Bosch C was studied given the range of applications and performance of DI as an as-cast alloy. Ingots were produced using commercial elements to simulate the use of IL-Fe with C sourced from the byproduct C of the Bosch process. Samples were cast and compared to commercially available 65–45-12 DI with phase transformation diagrams, microstructures, and hardness. Results showed that IL-sourced elements are a viable source of elemental alloying materials for a range of DI alloys, with some limitations.     

A lunar L2-Farside exploration and science mission concept with the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle and a teleoperated lander/rover

A novel concept is presented in this paper for a human mission to the lunar L2 (Lagrange) point that would be a proving ground for future exploration missions to deep space while also overseeing scientifically important investigations. In an L2 halo orbit above the lunar farside, the astronauts aboard the Orion Crew Vehicle would travel 15% farther from Earth than did the Apollo astronauts and spend almost three times longer in deep space. Such a mission would serve as a first step beyond low Earth orbit and prove out operational spaceflight capabilities such as life support, communication, high speed re-entry, and radiation protection prior to more difficult human exploration missions. On this proposed mission, the crew would teleoperate landers/rovers on the unexplored lunar farside, which would obtain samples from the geologically interesting farside and deploy a low radio frequency telescope. Sampling the South Pole-Aitken basin, one of the oldest impact basins in the solar system, is a key science objective of the 2011 Planetary Science Decadal Survey. Observations at low radio frequencies to track the effects of the Universe’s first stars/galaxies on the intergalactic medium are a priority of the 2010 Astronomy and Astrophysics Decadal Survey. Such telerobotic oversight would also demonstrate capability for human and robotic cooperation on future, more complex deep space missions such as exploring Mars.     

气体二次喷射矢量喷管三维流场计算

采用三维雷诺平均Navier-Stokes方程和κ-ε湍流模型对气体二次喷射推力矢量喷管复杂干扰内流场进行数值模拟.比较了在不同喷射参数和不同喷管落压比NPR(Nozzle Pressure Ratio)下的流场特征,分析了这些参数对矢量偏转效率和推力系数的影响.结果表明,二次流喷射位置、喷射角度和二次流质量流量对矢量角的影响相互耦合,喷管达到最大矢量角时,各参数并不能同时达到各自的最优值;矢量角越大,推力系数越小,推力损失越大;矩形喷射口的推力矢量性能优于圆形喷射口;减小喷管落压比可以提高矢量偏转角度.     

基于自适应预测校正的月球软着陆制导控制方法

应用自适应预测制导方法,研究月球软着陆过程中的制导控制问题。作为一种具有逻辑结构的构造性方法,本文概述了自适应预测制导方法的实现步骤。针对月球软着陆过程中制导控制量少于被控制量这一“欠驱动”问题,在已有的基于一阶特征模型的全系数自适应预测校正方法的基础上,将输入输出相等的系统拓展为输入少于输出的“欠驱动”系统,以满足对位置、速度矢量同时进行制导控制的需要。本文针对初始状态误差、推力偏差、质量偏差以及比冲偏差下的软着陆过程,进行了Monte Carlo仿真分析,结果表明,自适应预测制导方法可有效用于月球软着陆过程的制导控制,且具有较高的精度和较强的鲁棒性。     

使用GAO-YONG湍流方程组 对顶盖驱动方腔流的计算

运用SIMPLER方法、QUICK格式及交错网格技术求解GAO-YONG湍流方程组,对二维顶盖驱动方腔流进行数值模拟,得到方腔内的涡量分布和方腔中心水平剖线上的速度变化曲线,并与DNS(Directly Numerical Simulation)结果进行定性对比,有较好的一致性.结果表明,GAO-YONG湍流方程组中与湍流多尺度现象相对应的机械能方程对此湍流方程组能够合理地模拟出顶盖驱动方腔流中复杂的湍流粘性分布以及湍流能量逆转现象起到了关键作用.研究进一步证明了GAO-YONG湍流方程组能够得到复杂流动的真实粘性场.     

水下弹体空化流动的数值模拟

采用均质流模型对水下弹体的空化流动进行了数值模拟,控制方程的求解采用有限体积法,对流项采用迎风通量差分格式,时间步的推进则采用了LU-SGS隐式方法.使用质量传输模型模拟汽-液之间的质量转换.为了更好的计算低速流动,在计算中对对流项进行了预处理,并对质量传输源项进行了点隐式处理.对绕圆柱钝头体空化流动进行了模拟,雷诺数Re＝136 000,计算得到了圆柱形钝头体在空化数σ＝0.1,0.2,0.3时的壁面压力系数,并与试验结果进行了对比,符合良好.在此基础上研究了弹体带尾迹的超空化现象,空化数σ＝0.2,0.1,0.06,在σ＝0.06下得到了水下弹体的超空化尾迹.      

A conceptual configuration of the lunar base bioregenerative life support system including soil-like substrate for growing plants

The paper presents a conceptual configuration of the lunar base bioregenerative life support system (LBLSS), including soil-like substrate (SLS) for growing plants. SLS makes it possible to combine the processes of plant growth and the utilization of plant waste. Plants are to be grown on SLS on the basis of 20 kg of dry SLS mass or 100 kg of wet SLS mass per square meter. The substrate is to be delivered to the base ready-made as part of the plant growth subsystem. Food for the crew was provided by prestored stock 24% and by plant growing system 76%. Total dry weight of the food is 631 g per day (2800 kcal/day) for one crew member (CM). The list of candidate plants to be grown under lunar BLSS conditions included 14 species: wheat, rice, soybean, peanuts, sweet pepper, carrots, tomatoes, coriander, cole, lettuce, radish, squash, onion and garlic. From the prestored stock the crew consumed canned fish, iodinated salt, sugar, beef sauce and seafood sauce. Our calculations show that to provide one CM with plant food requires the area of 47.5 m². The balance of substance is achieved by the removal dehydrated urine 59 g, feces 31 g, food waste 50 g, SLS 134 g, and also waters 86 g from system and introduction food 236 g, liquid potassium soap 4 g and mineral salts 120 g into system daily. To reduce system setup time the first plants could be sowed and germinated to a certain age on the Earth.     

高超声速二方程湍流模型的数值模拟对比

对基于Reynolds和Favré(密度加权)混合平均的二方程湍流模型进行了修正,同时根据数值模拟高超声速流动时必须具有高分辨率捕捉间断面与在边界层内抑制数值粘性的能力的要求,提出了新的总变差减小(TVD)格式熵修正函数.在此基础上,通过对压缩拐角的高超声速湍流的数值模拟,对基于Reynolds和Favré混合平均的二方程湍流模型,以及其它不可压缩模型及可压缩性修正模型进行了对比,显示了不同湍流模型及可压缩性修正在计算壁面压力分布和热流分布上的特点,说明了对高超声速压缩拐角型流动,湍流模型可压缩修正的必要性,得到了基于Reynolds和Favré混合平均的二方程湍流模型的计算结果最接近实验结果.      

A simulation study for anticipated accuracy of lunar gravity field model by SELENE tracking data

Results of numerical simulations are presented to examine the global gravity field recovery capability of the Japanese lunar exploration project SELENE (SELenological and ENgineering Explorer) which will be launched in 2007. New characteristics of the SELENE lunar gravimetry include 4-way satellite-to-satellite Doppler tracking of main orbiter and differential VLBI tracking of two small free-flier satellites. It is shown that the proposed satellite constellation will provide the first truly global satellite tracking data coverage. The expected results from these data are; (1) drastic reduction in far-side gravity error, (2) estimation of many gravity coefficients by the observation, not by a priori information, and (3) one order of magnitude improvement over existing gravity models for low-degree field.     

Integral inversion of GRAIL inter-satellite gravitational accelerations for regional recovery of the lunar gravitational field

We present an integral-based approach for high-resolution regional recovery of the gravitational field in this article. We derive rigorous remove-compute-restore integral estimators relating the line-of-sight gravitational acceleration to an arbitrary order radial derivative of the gravitational potential. The integral estimators are composed of three terms, i.e., the truncated integration, the low-frequency line-of-sight gravitational acceleration, and the high-frequency truncation error (effect of the distant zones). We test the accuracy of the integral transformations and of the integral estimators in a closed-loop simulation over the Montes Jura region on the nearside of the Moon. In this way, we determine optimal sizes of integration radii and grid discretisation. In addition, we investigate the performance of the regional integral inversion with synthetic and realistic GRAIL observations. We demonstrate that the regional inversion results of the disturbing gravitational potential and its first order radial derivative in the Montes Jura mountain range are less contaminated by high-frequency noise than the global spherical harmonic models.