Particle Scattering by Magnetic Fields

The need for a correct quantitative treatment of the interactions between cosmic rays and turbulent magnetic fields continues to be one of the fundamental problems of modern astrophysics. It is the aim of this paper to review new developments in the understanding of mechanisms involved in the scattering of charged particles by magnetic field fluctuations. Special emphasis is given to a comparison of transport parameters determined from the modeling of spacecraft and neutron monitor observation of solar particle events, with theoretical predictions derived from a spectral analysis of simultaneously measured fluctuation spectra. It appears that the traditional quasi-linear theory of particle scattering requires only a slight modification, and the major problem still is our lack of knowledge of the three-dimensional structure of the magnetic turbulence. Possibilities to better reconcile the theory with observations by properly taking into account the microphysics of wave and turbulence aspects of the fluctuations, and to use energetic particles as probes to study certain properties of the magnetic turbulence, are discussed. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Wave-particle interactions and their relevance to substorms

Wave-particle effects are implicit in most models of radial diffusion and energization of Van Allen belt particles; they were explicitly used in the wave turbulence model for trapped particle precipitation and trapped flux limitations by Kennel and Petschek, Cornwall and by many others. Liemohn used wave-particle interactions to work out a theory of path-integrated whistler amplification process to explain the lack of large per-hop attenuation of multiple-hop LF whistlers.Others have now used wave-particle interactions to construct theories of ELF and VLF chorus. In the present paper we shall review the observations and some of the pertinent theoretical interpretations of wave-particle effects as they relate to substorm and storm-time phenomena. If substorms develop as a result of magnetic merging, then it seems clear that wave-particle interactions in the dissipative or so-called diffusion region of the reconnection zone may be of great importance. The plasma sheet thinning and flow towards the Earth lead inevitably to the development of particle distribution functions that contain free energy in a pitch-angle anisotropy. Such free energy can be released via plasma wave instabilities. The subsequent wave-particle interactions can result in both strong and weak diffusion of particles into loss cones with consequent precipitation fluxes into the auroral zone. Ring current proton spectra also should be unstable against various plasma instabilities with consequent ring current decay and precipitations. Wave-particle interactions must play some important roles in auroral arcs, electrojets and other phenomena related to substorms. These aspects of wave-Paticle interaction will be covered     

超声速湍流流场的RANS/LES混合计算方法研究

采用对接/拼接网格技术,建立了基于分区混合和基于湍流尺度混合的双重RANS/LES混合计算模型,并对环翼低速绕流、翼型跨声速绕流和球锥带凹窗外形二维超声速绕流进行了初步的数值模拟.环翼和翼型绕流计算表明,该混合模型可给出较合理的湍流宏观平均量;球锥带凹窗外形二维超声速绕流计算表明,该混合模型可得到超声速瞬态湍流脉动流场,凹窗处存在复杂的旋涡结构和波系结构,呈现较大尺度的脉动.但该模型还需要进一步的考核验证.     

Inner-belt Van Allen radiation

A survey of the present state of knowledge about the inner radiation zone is presented. This includes a historical review of empirical data and theoretical considerations concerning electrons, protons, and heavier particles. Included are results obtained from the various high-altitude nuclear tests. Recent experimental results are presented and some newer theoretical ideas, such as pitch-angle scattering and radial diffusion, are discussed as applied to the data. Comparisons of the measured fluxes, spectra, and time variations with the theoretical calculations are made where possible.Some conclusions are drawn pertaining to the sources and loss processes for the trapped particles, and some comments are made regarding future measurements in the inner zone.     

Particle Acceleration Mechanisms

In this paper we review the possible mechanisms for production of non-thermal electrons which are responsible for the observed non-thermal radiation in clusters of galaxies. Our primary focus is on non-thermal Bremsstrahlung and inverse Compton scattering, that produce hard X-ray emission. We first give a brief review of acceleration mechanisms and point out that in most astrophysical situations, and in particular for the intracluster medium, shocks, turbulence and plasma waves play a crucial role. We also outline how the effects of the turbulence can be accounted for. Using a generic model for turbulence and acceleration, we then consider two scenarios for production of non-thermal radiation. The first is motivated by the possibility that hard X-ray emission is due to non-thermal Bremsstrahlung by nonrelativistic particles and attempts to produce non-thermal tails by accelerating the electrons from the background plasma with an initial Maxwellian distribution. For acceleration rates smaller than the Coulomb energy loss rate, the effect of energising the plasma is to primarily heat the plasma with little sign of a distinct non-thermal tail. Such tails are discernible only for acceleration rates comparable or larger than the Coulomb loss rate. However, these tails are accompanied by significant heating and they are present for a short time of <10⁶ years, which is also the time that the tail will be thermalised. A longer period of acceleration at such rates will result in a runaway situation with most particles being accelerated to very high energies. These more exact treatments confirm the difficulty with this model, first pointed out by Petrosian (Astrophys. J. 557:560, 2001). Such non-thermal tails, even if possible, can only explain the hard X-ray but not the radio emission which needs GeV or higher energy electrons. For these and for production of hard X-rays by the inverse Compton model, we need the second scenario where there is injection and subsequent acceleration of relativistic electrons. It is shown that a steady state situation, for example arising from secondary electrons produced from cosmic ray proton scattering by background protons, will most likely lead to flatter than required electron spectra or it requires a short escape time of the electrons from the cluster. An episodic injection of relativistic electrons, presumably from galaxies or AGN, and/or episodic generation of turbulence and shocks by mergers can result in an electron spectrum consistent with observations but for only a short period of less than one billion years.     

Formation of Planetesimals and Accretion of the Terrestrial Planets

Planetesimals formed in the solar nebula by collisional coagulation. Dust aggregates settled toward the central plane, the larger ones growing by sweeping up smaller ones. A thin, dense layer of particles formed; shear-generated turbulence and differential motions induced by gas drag inhibited gravitational instability. Growth proceeded by collisions, producing planetesimals on a timescale of a few thousand years in the terrestrial zone. For bodies smaller than about a kilometer, motions were dominated by gas drag, and impact velocities decreased with size. At larger sizes gravitational interactions became significant, and velocities increased due to mutual perturbations. Larger bodies then grew more rapidly, this ``runaway' led to formation of tens to hundreds of lunar- to Mars-sized planetary embryos in the zone of terrestrial planets. The final accretion of these bodies into a few planets involved large impacts, and occurred on a timescale of 10⁷ to 10⁸ years. This scenario gives a reasonably consistent picture of the origin of the terrestrial planets, but does not account for the anomalously low eccentricities of the Earth and Venus. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

用激光多卜勒风速仪（LDA）测量自由射流流场

一、概述 研究射流规律是航空、宇航及一般工程研究中的一个重要课题。目前紊流理论尚不完善,实验研究必不可少。LDA是一种先进的非接触式测速工具,用它研究射流在国内尚属初探。本文总结了在自由射流流场的大规模实验研究中积累的测量经验,并介绍一些典型的测量结果。 测量在我校同轴射流风洞上进行。使用DISA55X二维后向散射LDA系统。图1     

New Perspectives on Auroral Morphology

The visual aurora takes on a variety of forms. Aurora has a tendency to appear first as very thin, highly structured forms. Over time, these tend to diffuse creating much thicker forms. It is suggested that the extreme variety of auroral forms can be understood in terms of one acceleration mechanism to produce a narrow, field-aligned beam and another process that scatters electrons into trapped orbits. The scattering is due to beam- plasma interactions that generate waves on the upper-hybrid resonance curve. These waves are effective in scattering electrons from parallel to perpendicular directions. The diffuse forms are therefore caused by precipitation of quasi-trapped electrons that have drifted from the field lines on which they were accelerated. Electrons scattered into trapped orbits may also constitute the seed population for the electron radiation belts. It is also suggested that the electron beams are accelerated by inertial Alfven waves that propagate current filaments from the turbulent region in the near-Earth plasma sheet to the auroral zone ionosphere. Electrons can be accelerated by becoming trapped in inertial Alfven waves whose phase velocity increases as they propagate toward the Earth. Specific numerical simulations that could give substance to these suggestions are proposed.     

不同密度材料颗粒对两相湍流调制的实验

 在颗粒雷诺数较小范围内,针对不同密度材料颗粒对气相湍流的调制规律进行了实验研究。采用相多普勒颗粒分析仪(PDPA)测量了气粒两相圆湍射流中气相速度和湍流度的分布,比较了相同形状、相同粒径和体积分数近似相同时玻璃微珠和聚苯乙烯颗粒分别存在时的两相射流流动的气相速度和湍流度。实验发现:不同密度材料的颗粒对气相平均速度的调制作用差别不明显,但对气相湍流度的调制作用显著不同。在近场区域,密度大的玻璃微珠对气相湍流度的增强作用高于密度小的聚苯乙烯颗粒;在远场区域,气相湍流度被削弱,并且密度大的玻璃微珠的削弱作用强于密度小的聚苯乙烯颗粒。该研究为进一步提出合理的两相湍射流的控制方法提供了理论依据和指导。     

Stochastic Acceleration by Turbulence

The subject of this paper is stochastic acceleration by plasma turbulence, a process akin to the original model proposed by Fermi. We review the relative merits of different acceleration models, in particular the so called first order Fermi acceleration by shocks and second order Fermi by stochastic processes, and point out that plasma waves or turbulence play an important role in all mechanisms of acceleration. Thus, stochastic acceleration by turbulence is active in most situations. We also show that it is the most efficient mechanism of acceleration of relatively cool non relativistic thermal background magnetized plasma particles. In addition, it can preferentially accelerate electrons relative to protons as is needed in many astrophysical radiating sources, where usually there are no indications of presence of shocks. We also point out that a hybrid acceleration mechanism consisting of initial acceleration by turbulence of background particles followed by a second stage acceleration by a shock has many attractive features. It is demonstrated that the above scenarios can account for many signatures of the accelerated electrons, protons and other ions, in particular ³He and ⁴He, seen directly as Solar Energetic Particles and through the radiation they produce in solar flares.     

FRS技术对瞬态高速喷流的可视化研究

为了诊断瞬态高速喷流的结构特征,开展了基于分子滤波瑞利散射(FRS)技术的可视化研究.介绍了FRS技术的基本原理,分析了散射光的多普勒频移对诊断的影响.针对瞬态高速喷流特点,建立了FRS诊断系统,设计了两种不同的激光入射方式.采用与流场方向垂直的激光入射方式,获得了喷流与空气作用的湍流结构.而采用与流场轴向平行的激光入射方式,则获得了喷流自身的结构.FRS技术对瞬态高速喷流的可视化研究,对研究超声速湍流混合层流场具有重要指导意义.      

Electrodynamic coupling of the magnetosphere and ionosphere

The auroral zone ionosphere is coupled to the outer magnetosphere by means of field-aligned currents. Parallel electric fields associated with these currents are now widely accepted to be responsible for the acceleration of auroral particles. This paper will review the theoretical concepts and models describing this coupling. The dynamics of auroral zone particles will be described, beginning with the adiabatic motions of particles in the converging geomagnetic field in the presence of parallel potential drops and then considering the modifications to these adiabatic trajectories due to wave-particle interactions. The formation of parallel electric fields can be viewed both from microscopic and macroscopic viewpoints. The presence of a current carrying plasma can give rise to plasma instabilities which in a weakly turbulent situation can affect the particle motions, giving rise to an effective resistivity in the plasma. Recent satellite observations, however, indicate that the parallel electric field is organized into discrete potential jumps, known as double layers. From a macroscopic viewpoint, the response of the particles to a parallel potential drop leads to an approximately linear relationship between the current density and the potential drop.The currents flowing in the auroral circuit must close in the ionosphere. To a first approximation, the ionospheric conductivity can be considered to be constant, and in this case combining the ionospheric Ohm's Law with the linear current-voltage relation for parallel currents leads to an outer scale length, above which electric fields can map down to the ionosphere and below which parallel electric fields become important. The effects of particle precipitation make the picture more complex, leading to enhanced ionization in upward current regions and to the possibility of feedback interactions with the magnetosphere.Determining adiabatic particle orbits in steady-state electric and magnetic fields can be used to determine the self-consistent particle and field distributions on auroral field lines. However, it is difficult to pursue this approach when the fields are varying with time. Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) models deal with these time-dependent situations by treating the particles as a fluid. This class of model, however, cannot treat kinetic effects in detail. Such effects can in some cases be modeled by effective transport coefficients inserted into the MHD equations. Intrinsically time-dependent processes such as the development of magnetic micropulsations and the response of the magnetosphere to ionospheric fluctuations can be readily treated in this framework.The response of the lower altitude auroral zone depends in part on how the system is driven. Currents are generated in the outer parts of the magnetosphere as a result of the plasma convection. The dynamics of this region is in turn affected by the coupling to the ionosphere. Since dissipation rates are very low in the outer magnetosphere, the convection may become turbulent, implying that nonlinear effects such as spectral transfer of energy to different scales become important. MHD turbulence theory, modified by the ionospheric coupling, can describe the dynamics of the boundary-layer region. Turbulent MHD fluids can give rise to the generation of field-aligned currents through the so-called -effect, which is utilized in the theory of the generation of the Earth's magnetic field. It is suggested that similar processes acting in the boundary-layer plasma may be ultimately responsible for the generation of auroral currents.     

Non-Thermal Processes in Cosmological Simulations

Non-thermal components are key ingredients for understanding clusters of galaxies. In the hierarchical model of structure formation, shocks and large-scale turbulence are unavoidable in the cluster formation processes. Understanding the amplification and evolution of the magnetic field in galaxy clusters is necessary for modelling both the heat transport and the dissipative processes in the hot intra-cluster plasma. The acceleration, transport and interactions of non-thermal energetic particles are essential for modelling the observed emissions. Therefore, the inclusion of the non-thermal components will be mandatory for simulating accurately the global dynamical processes in clusters. In this review, we summarise the results obtained with the simulations of the formation of galaxy clusters which address the issues of shocks, magnetic field, cosmic ray particles and turbulence.     

应用 TVD 格式求解 N-S 方程预测透平叶栅二次流损失

应用ＴＶＤ格式和Ｂａｌｄｗｉｎ－Ｌｏｍａｘ代数紊流模型求解三维Ｎ－Ｓ方程,详细模拟出了一个直列透平叶栅中二次流及其损失在叶栅通道中的产生和发展过程,并给出了叶栅损失的分布状况,其结果深刻揭示了透平叶栅二次流损失的产生发展机制。本文计算得到的叶栅损失的栅距平均值沿叶高的分布曲线与实验值吻合良好,表明格式求解精度较高。     

风洞模拟近地面大气边界层

本文通过大气边界层风洞的模拟实验，介绍一种在风洞中模拟近地面大气边界层的方法。根据大风地区的现场实测资料，对大气的风剖面及湍流度等有关参数，提出了一些特殊的要求。常规的模拟方法难以保证与实际风环境的相似，为此专门研制了一种在保证平均风剖面相似的前提下，可使气流产生大湍流度的装置，简称湍流度调节器。通过对模拟边界层的平均风速，湍流度及风速谱的测量分析，证明与实际风区大风环境的风结构相当一致。为解决实     

子午扩张对涡轮内旋涡结构影响的数值模拟

求解了某型航空发动机的低压涡轮导向器内流场。采用的数值方法为具有 TVD性质的三阶精度GODU NOV格式,湍流模型为 B-L代数模型及 MML模型的混合修正模型。该涡轮导向器的一个显著特点是由于结构上的要求,静叶前子午流道在上端壁具有较大的扩张角。通过数值模拟及流场内涡系结构和损失的分析表明,由于子午扩张造成端壁附面层增厚并在静叶前形成较大的分离区。该分离区的存在不但使静叶前损失急剧增加而且使上端壁马蹄涡和通道涡尺度加大,强度增强,引起流道内损失增加。      

Stochastic Acceleration of Energetic Particles in the Heliosphere

In this paper we assess possible roles of stochastic acceleration by random electric field and plasma motion in the production and transport of energetic particles in the heliosphere. Stochastic acceleration can occur in the presence of multiple small-scale magnetohydrodynamic waves propagating in different directions. Usually, this type of stochastic acceleration is closely related to particle pitch angle scattering or parallel diffusion. Given the values of the parallel diffusion coefficient inferred from the observations of cosmic ray modulation or other energetic particle phenomena in the heliosphere, stochastic acceleration by small-scale waves is much slower than acceleration by shock waves and it is also much slower than adiabatic cooling by the expansion of the solar wind; thus it is considered as inefficient for producing heliospheric energetic particles or for the modulation of cosmic rays. Another type of stochastic acceleration occurs when particles go through random compressions or expansions due to large-scale plasma motion. This acceleration mechanism could be very fast when the correlation time of the fluctuations in plasma compression is short compared to the diffusion time. Particle acceleration by an ensemble of small shock waves or intermittent long wavelength compressible turbulence belongs to this category. It tends to establish an asymptotic p ^?3 universal distribution function quickly if there is no or little large-scale adiabatic cooling. Such a particle distribution will contain an infinite amount of pressure. Back reaction from the pressure is expected to modify the amplitude of plasma waves to an equilibrium state. At that point, the pressure of accelerated particles must remain finite and the accelerated particles could approach a p ^?5 distribution function.     

Dust Near The Sun

We review the current knowledge and understanding of dust in the inner solar system. The major sources of the dust population in the inner solar system are comets and asteroids, but the relative contributions of these sources are not quantified. The production processes inward from 1 AU are: Poynting-Robertson deceleration of particles outside of 1 AU, fragmentation into dust due to particle-particle collisions, and direct dust production from comets. The loss processes are: dust collisional fragmentation, sublimation, radiation pressure acceleration, sputtering, and rotational bursting. These loss processes as well as dust surface processes release dust compounds in the ambient interplanetary medium. Between 1 and 0.1 AU the dust number densities and fluxes can be described by inward extrapolation of 1 AU measurements, assuming radial dependences that describe particles in close to circular orbits. Observations have confirmed the general accuracy of these assumptions for regions within 30° latitude of the ecliptic plane. The dust densities are considerably lower above the solar poles but Lorentz forces can lift particles of sizes < 5 μm to high latitudes and produce a random distribution of small grains that varies with the solar magnetic field. Also long-period comets are a source of out-of-ecliptic particles. Under present conditions no prominent dust ring exists near the Sun. We discuss the recent observations of sungrazing comets. Future in-situ experiments should measure the complex dynamics of small dust particles, identify the contribution of cometary dust to the inner-solar-system dust cloud, and determine dust interactions in the ambient interplanetary medium. The combination of in-situ dust measurements with particle and field measurements is recommended.     

扩散角对汽车风洞扩散段流动的影响

传统的汽车风洞设计一般参考现有风洞的设计经验和沿用工程估算方法。扩散段是汽车风洞的主要部件之一,它的设计经验和估算方法通常基于均匀来流。笔者采用v2f湍流模型研究两种非均匀来流工况下,不同扩散角对扩散段流动的影响。模型风洞扩散段出口速度分布的数值模拟结果与试验结果的一致性表明：使用v2f湍流模型能够真实反映扩散段流动特性。与均匀来流相比,非均匀来流大幅度增加扩散段总压损失因数,约增加420%。壁面摩擦损失和流动分离损失的相互作用使风洞扩散段在某一扩散角下存在最小总压损失因数,且扩散段进口速度不均匀度越大,最优扩散角越大。