The internal constitutions of the inner planets and the moon

The internal structures of the moon, Mars, Venus, and Mercury are examined in the light of what is known about the constitution of the earth. The gravitational figure of the earth as obtained from orbits of artificial satellites is used to estimate the possible deviations from hydrostatic equilibrium on other planets. Observations of the orbital and rotational motion of the moon are consistent with the hypothesis that the interior of the moon supports density inhomogeneities of the same order as those supported by the earth. The available data on the moon are insufficient to determine whether or not the moon is differentiated. The orbits of Phobos and Deimos yield an adequate value for the moment of inertia of Mars. The moment of inertia and the mass are consistent with a metallic core containing about 10 per cent of the mass of Mars. The observations of the possible magnetic field of Mars would be of importance both to the understanding of planetary magnetic fields and elucidating the internal structure of that planet. Seismic investigations on the earth yield an equation of state for silicates to pressures of about 1 × 10⁶ bars. This equation of state is used in determining density variation within Mars.The surface heat flow for the earth is consistent with the hypothesis that the concentration of radioactive elements is the same as that in chondritic meteorites. The observed ratio of potassium to uranium in surface and near-surface rocks is not consonant with the chondritic hypothesis. The moon can be of chondritic composition only if it is differentiated with the radioactivity concentrated in the upper few hundred kilometers. A chondritic composition for Mars would require a differentiation in excess of that consistent with its mass and moment of inertia. It is concluded that a chondritic composition is not a satisfactory chemical model for the inner planets.     

Mars/Moon Cratering Rate Ratio Estimates

This article presents a method to adapt the lunar production function, i.e. the frequency of impacts with a given size of a formed crater as discussed by Neukum et al. (2001), to Mars. This requires to study the nature of crater-forming projectiles, the impact rate difference, and the scaling laws for the impact crater formation. These old-standing questions are reviewed, and examples for the re-calculation of the production function from the moon to Mars are given.     

欧美月球GNSS规划现状分析综述

月球是地球最重要的天然卫星,当前国际上正在迎来新一轮月球探索高潮,数十个机构和商业团队正在规划月球探索任务,并设想在未来实现航天员长期驻月,围绕月球的“太空竞赛”刚刚开始。月球GNSS（基于现有的地球GNSS以及新的环月卫星通信导航基础设施的月球卫星通信导航定位技术）是空间基准科研的基础,能够提供航天器着陆定位以及月面（及其覆盖空间）定位、导航与授时等服务,同时可以将月球作为试验场,将导航工具包扩展到更远的目的地（如火星）。对欧美近期发布的月球GNSS规划进行了整理归纳,其中包括美国月球GNSS接收机实验（LuGRE）计划和欧洲月光（MoonLight）计划,以及美国中远期月球通信中继和导航系统（LCRNS）计划,这些计划可以为我国开展月球GNSS规划提供参考。     

Lunar photography: Techniques and results

Conclusion The lunar photography missions have included flyby, impacter, lander, and orbiter spacecrafts. These missions have provided photographs of the far side of the moon and a ten-fold increase in frontside resolution plus higher resolution of selected frontside areas. The resolutions which have been achieved vary from 1 m for the Lunar Orbiter to 1/2 m for the impacting Ranger to millimeters for Luna-IX and the Surveyors. The return from these missions have resolved much of the mystery surrounding the moon.The prime objective of the U.S. photographic missions has been the support of the Apollo-manned lunar landing program. The Ranger program, the Surveyor program, and the Lunar Orbiter program provided a logical progression in the utilization of a developing space exploration technology. These programs have provided the required information and have confirmed that the Apollo landing vehicle design is compatible with the conditions to be experienced on selected areas of the lunar surface.The future manned landing missions can be expected to provide additional lunar photography. Since the astronauts can be more selective in their photography, even more outstanding and informative results should be achieved. The addition of movies and even live television coverage will permit earth-based man to share more directly in the manned exploration of the moon.The unmanned photographic exploration of the moon has provided much of the technology required for similar missions to the planets. The U.S. Mariner-IV was the first successful mission to obtain close-up photographs of the planet Mars. It can be expected that both the U.S.A. and Russia will try for further photographic successes in the exploration of our solar system.This paper presents the results of one phase of research carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under Contract No. NAS 7-100, sponsored by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.     

Conversations: with Carl Pilcher [interview by Johan Benson

An interview with Carl Pilcher, science program director for solar system exploration at NASA, examines NASA's past, present, and planned missions to explore the solar system. Specific questions relate to the status of current and planned missions, science results of the Pathfinder mission to Mars, cooperation with the Japanese space agency, the status of the search for extraterrestrial life in solar system meteoroids and asteroids, mission size for more in-depth exploration, reports of water on the moon, and the exploration of near-Earth objects.     

火星无人机实验台发展综述及构想

火星地表崎岖、环境复杂,火星无人机由于其具有高机动性和灵活性,为火星探测提供了一种新的工作模式,是未来深空探测的重要范式。本文对比了火星与地球相关地表环境参数的差异,分析了火星无人机需要克服的困难和主要用途,阐明了火星无人机实验台的重要性;详细介绍了国内外研究机构研发火星无人机实验台的技术特点与功能优劣,总结了实验台需要具备的模拟火星环境和测量相关参数。在此基础上,提出了构建火星无人机实验台设想,给出了总体设计思想和思路,并对火星无人机气动力学实验平台的应用前景进行了展望。     

New Horizons: Anticipated Scientific Investigations at the Pluto System

The New Horizons spacecraft will achieve a wide range of measurement objectives at the Pluto system, including color and panchromatic maps, 1.25–2.50 micron spectral images for studying surface compositions, and measurements of Pluto’s atmosphere (temperatures, composition, hazes, and the escape rate). Additional measurement objectives include topography, surface temperatures, and the solar wind interaction. The fulfillment of these measurement objectives will broaden our understanding of the Pluto system, such as the origin of the Pluto system, the processes operating on the surface, the volatile transport cycle, and the energetics and chemistry of the atmosphere. The mission, payload, and strawman observing sequences have been designed to achieve the NASA-specified measurement objectives and maximize the science return. The planned observations at the Pluto system will extend our knowledge of other objects formed by giant impact (such as the Earth–moon), other objects formed in the outer solar system (such as comets and other icy dwarf planets), other bodies with surfaces in vapor-pressure equilibrium (such as Triton and Mars), and other bodies with N₂:CH₄ atmospheres (such as Titan, Triton, and the early Earth).     

固体自润滑材料极端温度环境适应能力研究

模拟月球表面极端高低温环境,对空间飞行器机构活动部件常用固体自润滑材料进行极端温度环境存贮实验.通过拉伸强度、压缩强度、弯曲强度、冲击强度、摩擦磨损等性能研究,评价固体自润滑材料在月面极端高低温环境下的生存适应能力.结果表明,两种典型空间用固体自润滑材料模拟三个月球日经历极端温度环境存储实验后,各项性能都未发生明显变化.     

Modeling of Venus, Mars, and Titan

Increased computer capacity has made it possible to model the global plasma and neutral dynamics near Venus, Mars and Saturn??s moon Titan. The plasma interactions at Venus, Mars, and Titan are similar because each possess a substantial atmosphere but lacks a global internally generated magnetic field. In this article three self-consistent plasma models are described: the magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) model, the hybrid model and the fully kinetic plasma model. Chamberlain and Monte Carlo models of the Martian exosphere are also described. In particular, we describe the pros and cons of each model approach. Results from simulations are presented to demonstrate the ability of the models to capture the known plasma and neutral dynamics near the three objects.     

Recent Results from Titan��s Ionosphere

Titan has the most significant atmosphere of any moon in the solar system, with a pressure at the surface larger than the Earth??s. It also has a significant ionosphere, which is usually immersed in Saturn??s magnetosphere. Occasionally it exits into Saturn??s magnetosheath. In this paper we review several recent advances in our understanding of Titan??s ionosphere, and present some comparisons with the other unmagnetized objects Mars and Venus. We present aspects of the ionospheric structure, chemistry, electrodynamic coupling and transport processes. We also review observations of ionospheric photoelectrons at Titan, Mars and Venus. Where appropriate, we mention the effects on ionospheric escape.     

深空探测器无线电干涉测量开源数据处理系统构建及试验

为更好地开展深空无线电干涉测量试验,基于DiFX(Distributed FX,分布式FX型相关处理)、SPICE(Spacecraft Planet Instrument Camera-matrix Events,航天器行星仪器照相机矩阵事件)、HOPS(Haystack Observatory Postprocessing System,Haystack克天文台后处理系统)及AIPS(Astronomical Image Processing System,天文图像处理系统)等开源软件,搭建了一套可用于深空探测器信号相关处理的无线电干涉测量数据处理系统。首先介绍了该系统的整体架构及组成,然后介绍了系统各组成模块的功能及工作原理,最后利用该系统对嫦娥三号着陆器开展了观测试验,并对观测数据进行了处理。试验结果表明,该系统能成功实现深空航天器信号的相关处理、条纹拟合,以及时延解算等功能,有望为我国嫦娥五号任务及火星探测任务数据处理提供支持。     

Evaluating the Wind-Induced Mechanical Noise on the InSight Seismometers

The SEIS (Seismic Experiment for Interior Structures) instrument onboard the InSight mission to Mars is the critical instrument for determining the interior structure of Mars, the current level of tectonic activity and the meteorite flux. Meeting the performance requirements of the SEIS instrument is vital to successfully achieve these mission objectives. Here we analyse in-situ wind measurements from previous Mars space missions to understand the wind environment that we are likely to encounter on Mars, and then we use an elastic ground deformation model to evaluate the mechanical noise contributions on the SEIS instrument due to the interaction between the Martian winds and the InSight lander. Lander mechanical noise maps that will be used to select the best deployment site for SEIS once the InSight lander arrives on Mars are also presented. We find the lander mechanical noise may be a detectable signal on the InSight seismometers. However, for the baseline SEIS deployment position, the noise is expected to be below the total noise requirement \(>97~\%\) of the time and is, therefore, not expected to endanger the InSight mission objectives.     

星表移动探测机器人研究现状综述

星表移动探测机器人是多学科、高新技术的结晶,用于非结构化环境中的星球表面探测,能有效减轻人类工作强度、保护人身安全以及代替人类完成恶劣环境下的科研探测工作,有着巨大的经济和社会效益。本文对已发射的探测器进行了统计,系统梳理了成功着陆月球、火星的探测机器人的技术参数、结构与机构组成等,综合对比了各国在星表移动探测机器人研制方面的技术状态。结合国内外的研究现状和成果,重点针对星表移动探测机器人移动系统的研究进行了梳理,将星表移动探测机器人从运动形式上划分为轮式、腿式、履带式及其他类型4种形式,对每类机器人的研究进展、技术参数、结构与机构形式、运动形态等进行了系统回顾和详细分析。结合星表移动探测机器人面临的探测任务及发展方向,对星表移动探测机器人未来发展趋势进行了展望。     

火星超压气球温度分布研究

 针对火星气球的温度特性开展研究,首先分析了火星大气的特殊热环境;归纳了影响火星气球温度特性的主要环境因素;设计了两种不同蒙皮辐射特性的原型超压气球;建立了计算火星气球稳态温度分布的模型,并做了合理的简化;选择了热、冷、任意时刻及特殊工况进行气球的蒙皮和内部气体温度计算.结果表明,通过改进蒙皮辐射特性的设计,可以满足火星气球在特定工况下飞行的温度要求.     

Space colonization

NASA interest in colonization encompasses space tourism; space exploration; space bases in orbit, at L1, on the Moon, or on Mars; in-situ resource utilization; and planetary terraforming. Activities progressed during 2002 in areas such as Mars colonies, hoppers, and biomass; space elevators and construction; and in-situ consumables.     

月球卫星精密定轨

随着空间应用需求的日益增大,深空探测已成为现实,而月球显然是人类走向深空的首选目标。发射月球探测器通常分3个阶段,其运动状态分别对应3种不同类型的轨道:近地停泊轨道、地月转移轨道和绕月轨道。月球是1个慢自转天体且无大气,就轨道解而言这些因素导致环月卫星的运动与地球卫星有所差别。本文针对月球探测任务的特点,从月球与地球的差别入手,在仔细分析月球卫星的受力状况前提下,着重阐述月球探测器在环月段精密定轨的方法原理和具体实现过程。     

载人火星探测进展及其EDL过程GNC关键技术

随着火星探测技术的不断发展和探测任务的不断推进，载人火星探测在未来将会成为火星探测的重要手段。首先，回顾了无人火星探测任务的发展历程，对比分析了部分无人火星探测器进入、下降与着陆（EDL）过程的参数。然后，结合无人火星探测、载人月球探测和载人航天再入过程，梳理了载人火星探测的特点及需求，系统地总结了前苏联/俄罗斯和美国的载人火星探测研究进展以及技术储备。接着，归纳了载人火星探测的体系构成、集结方式和主要的技术挑战。最后，概括了载人火星EDL过程面临的难题，重点阐述了EDL的导航、制导与控制（GNC）关键技术。     

Reaching for the red planet

The distant shores of Mars were reached by numerous U.S. and Russian spacecraft throughout the 1960s to mid 1970s. Nearly 20 years have passed since those successful missions which orbited and landed on the Martian surface. Two Soviet probes headed for the planet in July, 1988, but later failed. In August 1993, the U.S. Mars Observer suddenly went silent just three days before it was to enter orbit around the planet and was never heard from again. In late 1996, there will be renewed activity on the launch pads with three probes departing for the red planet: 1) The U.S. Mars Global Surveyor will be launched in November on a Delta II rocket and will orbit the planet for global mapping purposes; 2) Russia's Mars '96 mission, scheduled to fly in November on a Proton launcher, consists of an orbiter, two small stations which will land on the Martian surface, and two penetrators that will plow into the terrain; and finally, 3) a U.S. Discovery-class spacecraft, the Mars Pathfinder, has a December launch date atop a Delta II booster. The mission features a lander and a microrover that will travel short distances over Martian territory. These missions usher in a new phase of Mars exploration, setting the stage for an unprecedented volley of spacecraft that will orbit around, land on, drive across, and perhaps fly at low altitudes over the planet.     

Atmospheric Science with InSight

In November 2018, for the first time a dedicated geophysical station, the InSight lander, will be deployed on the surface of Mars. Along with the two main geophysical packages, the Seismic Experiment for Interior Structure (SEIS) and the Heat-Flow and Physical Properties Package (HP³), the InSight lander holds a highly sensitive pressure sensor (PS) and the Temperature and Winds for InSight (TWINS) instrument, both of which (along with the InSight FluxGate (IFG) Magnetometer) form the Auxiliary Sensor Payload Suite (APSS). Associated with the RADiometer (RAD) instrument which will measure the surface brightness temperature, and the Instrument Deployment Camera (IDC) which will be used to quantify atmospheric opacity, this will make InSight capable to act as a meteorological station at the surface of Mars. While probing the internal structure of Mars is the primary scientific goal of the mission, atmospheric science remains a key science objective for InSight. InSight has the potential to provide a more continuous and higher-frequency record of pressure, air temperature and winds at the surface of Mars than previous in situ missions. In the paper, key results from multiscale meteorological modeling, from Global Climate Models to Large-Eddy Simulations, are described as a reference for future studies based on the InSight measurements during operations. We summarize the capabilities of InSight for atmospheric observations, from profiling during Entry, Descent and Landing to surface measurements (pressure, temperature, winds, angular momentum), and the plans for how InSight’s sensors will be used during operations, as well as possible synergies with orbital observations. In a dedicated section, we describe the seismic impact of atmospheric phenomena (from the point of view of both “noise” to be decorrelated from the seismic signal and “signal” to provide information on atmospheric processes). We discuss in this framework Planetary Boundary Layer turbulence, with a focus on convective vortices and dust devils, gravity waves (with idealized modeling), and large-scale circulations. Our paper also presents possible new, exploratory, studies with the InSight instrumentation: surface layer scaling and exploration of the Monin-Obukhov model, aeolian surface changes and saltation / lifing studies, and monitoring of secular pressure changes. The InSight mission will be instrumental in broadening the knowledge of the Martian atmosphere, with a unique set of measurements from the surface of Mars.