Innovations in mission architectures for exploration beyond low Earth orbit

Through the application of advanced technologies and mission concepts, architectures for missions beyond Earth orbit have been dramatically simplified. These concepts enable a stepping stone approach to science driven; technology enabled human and robotic exploration. Numbers and masses of vehicles required are greatly reduced, yet the pursuit of a broader range of science objectives is enabled. The scope of human missions considered range from the assembly and maintenance of large aperture telescopes for emplacement at the Sun-Earth libration point L2, to human missions to asteroids, the moon and Mars. The vehicle designs are developed for proof of concept, to validate mission approaches and understand the value of new technologies. The stepping stone approach employs an incremental buildup of capabilities, which allows for future decision points on exploration objectives. It enables testing of technologies to achieve greater reliability and understanding of costs for the next steps in exploration.     

Astromedicine and astrolaw: Emerging issues for advanced missions beyond Earth orbit

It is generally agreed within the scientific community that provision of appropriate medical facilities and administration of quality health care to astronauts are of great importance. However, for the more complex and remote missions envisaged for the future, issues of liability, responsibility and damage relating to medical practice may take on a greater significance and will need to be addressed. The author briefly reviews potential issues which may arise in the context of medical emergencies, crew autonomy and environmentally altered physiological status which characterize some projected advanced space missions and argues that the law of outer space will need to be expanded to take account of them.     

Serpentinization and its implications for life on the early Earth and Mars

Ophiolites, sections of ocean crust tectonically displaced onto land, offer significant potential to support chemolithoautotrophic life through the provision of energy and reducing power during aqueous alteration of their highly reduced mineralogies. There is substantial chemical disequilibrium between the primary olivine and pyroxene mineralogy of these ophiolites and the fluids circulating through them. This disequilibrium represents a potential source of chemical energy that could sustain life. Moreover, E (h)-pH conditions resulting from rock- water interactions in ultrabasic rocks are conducive to important abiotic processes antecedent to the origin of life. Serpentinization--the reaction of olivine- and pyroxene-rich rocks with water--produces magnetite, hydroxide, and serpentine minerals, and liberates molecular hydrogen, a source of energy and electrons that can be readily utilized by a broad array of chemosynthetic organisms. These systems are viewed as important analogs for potential early ecosystems on both Earth and Mars, where highly reducing mineralogy was likely widespread in an undifferentiated crust. Secondary phases precipitated during serpentinization have the capability to preserve organic or mineral biosignatures. We describe the petrology and mineral chemistry of an ophiolite-hosted cold spring in northern California and propose criteria to aid in the identification of serpentinizing terranes on Mars that have the potential to harbor chemosynthetic life.     

International Space Station as a base camp for exploration beyond low Earth orbit

The idea for using the International Space Station (ISS) as a platform for exploration has matured in the past few years and the concept continues to gain momentum. ISS provides a robust infrastructure which can be used to test systems and capabilities needed for missions to the Moon, Mars, asteroids and other potential destinations. International cooperation is a critical enabler and ISS has already demonstrated successful management of a large multi-national technical endeavor. Systems and resources needed for expeditions can be aggregated and thoroughly tested at ISS before departure thus providing wide operational flexibility and the best assurance of mission success. A small part of ISS called an Exploration Platform (ISS-EP) can be placed in cislunar space providing immediate benefits and flexibility for future exploration missions.We will show how ISS and the ISS-EP can be used to reduce risk and improve the operational flexibility for missions beyond low Earth orbit. Life support systems and other technologies developed for ISS can be evolved and adapted to the ISS-EP and other exploration spacecrafts. New technology, such as electric propulsion and advanced life support systems can be tested and proven at ISS as part of an incremental development program. Commercial companies who are introducing transportation and other services will benefit with opportunities to contribute to the mission since ISS will serve as a focal point for the commercialization of low earth orbit services. Finally, we will show how the use of ISS provides immediate benefits to the scientific community because its capabilities are available today and certain critical aspects of exploration missions can be simulated.     

Potential climatic impact of organic haze on early Earth

We have explored the direct and indirect radiative effects on climate of organic particles likely to have been present on early Earth by measuring their hygroscopicity and cloud nucleating ability. The early Earth analog aerosol particles were generated via ultraviolet photolysis of an early Earth analog gas mixture, which was designed to mimic possible atmospheric conditions before the rise of oxygen. An analog aerosol for the present-day atmosphere of Saturn's moon Titan was tested for comparison. We exposed the early Earth aerosol to a range of relative humidities (RHs). Water uptake onto the aerosol was observed to occur over the entire RH range tested (RH=80-87%). To translate our measurements of hygroscopicity over a specific range of RHs into their water uptake ability at any RH < 100% and into their ability to act as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) at RH > 100%, we relied on the hygroscopicity parameter κ, developed by Petters and Kreidenweis. We retrieved κ=0.22?±0.12 for the early Earth aerosol, which indicates that the humidified aerosol (RH < 100 %) could have contributed to a larger antigreenhouse effect on the early Earth atmosphere than previously modeled with dry aerosol. Such effects would have been of significance in regions where the humidity was larger than 50%, because such high humidities are needed for significant amounts of water to be on the aerosol. Additionally, Earth organic aerosol particles could have activated into CCN at reasonable-and even low-water-vapor supersaturations (RH > 100%). In regions where the haze was dominant, it is expected that low particle concentrations, once activated into cloud droplets, would have created short-lived, optically thin clouds. Such clouds, if predominant on early Earth, would have had a lower albedo than clouds today, thereby warming the planet relative to current-day clouds.     

A Delphi-Based Framework for systems architecting of in-orbit exploration infrastructure for human exploration beyond Low Earth Orbit

The current debate in the U.S. Human Spaceflight Program focuses on the development of the next generation of man-rated heavy lift launch vehicles. While launch vehicle systems are of critical importance for future exploration, a comprehensive analysis of the entire exploration infrastructure is required to avoid costly pitfalls at early stages of the design process. This paper addresses this need by presenting a Delphi-Based Systems Architecting Framework for integrated architectural analysis of future in-orbit infrastructure for human space exploration beyond Low Earth Orbit. The paper is structured in two parts.     

Challenges for coring deep permafrost on Earth and Mars

A scientific drilling expedition to the High Lake region of Nunavut, Canada, was recently completed with the goals of collecting samples and delineating gradients in salinity, gas composition, pH, pe, and microbial abundance in a 400 m thick permafrost zone and accessing the underlying pristine subpermafrost brine. With a triple-barrel wireline tool and the use of stringent quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) protocols, 200 m of frozen, Archean, mafic volcanic rock was collected from the lower boundary that separates the permafrost layer and subpermafrost saline water. Hot water was used to remove cuttings and prevent the drill rods from freezing in place. No cryopegs were detected during penetration through the permafrost. Coring stopped at the 535 m depth, and the drill water was bailed from the hole while saline water replaced it. Within 24 hours, the borehole iced closed at 125 m depth due to vapor condensation from atmospheric moisture and, initially, warm water leaking through the casing, which blocked further access. Preliminary data suggest that the recovered cores contain viable anaerobic microorganisms that are not contaminants even though isotopic analyses of the saline borehole water suggests that it is a residue of the drilling brine used to remove the ice from the upper, older portion of the borehole. Any proposed coring mission to Mars that seeks to access subpermafrost brine will not only require borehole stability but also a means by which to generate substantial heating along the borehole string to prevent closure of the borehole from condensation of water vapor generated by drilling.     

NASA strategic planning for 2000 and beyond

This short paper outlines the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration's development of its 2000 Strategic Plan.     

地球系统科学的发展及对地球观测的影响

随着人类活动的加剧与地球本身发展周期的影响,人类面临着愈来愈大的挑战。地球系统的全球化与对地观测技术的进步等推动了地球系统科学的产生和发展。为深刻认识全球变化,制订正确的政策,多个国家建立了对地观测系统。阐述了地球系统科学的主要内容,并以美国EOS和欧盟GMES为例,论述了对地观测计划及其发展趋势。     

Spore UV and acceleration resistance of endolithic Bacillus pumilus and Bacillus subtilis isolates obtained from Sonoran desert basalt: implications for lithopanspermia

Bacterial spores have been used as model systems for studying the theory of interplanetary transport of life by natural processes such as asteroidal or cometary impacts (i.e., lithopanspermia). Because current spallation theory predicts that near-surface rocks are ideal candidates for planetary ejection and surface basalts are widely distributed throughout the rocky planets, we isolated spore-forming bacteria from the interior of near-subsurface basalt rocks collected in the Sonoran desert near Tucson, Arizona. Spores were found to inhabit basalt at very low concentrations (相似文献   

Rate measurements of the hydrolysis of complex organic macromolecules in cold aqueous solutions: implications for prebiotic chemistry on the early Earth and Titan

Organic macromolecules ("complex tholins") were synthesized from a 0.95 N(2)/0.05 CH(4) atmosphere in a high-voltage AC flow discharge reactor. When placed in liquid water, specific water soluble compounds in the macromolecules demonstrated Arrhenius type first order kinetics between 273 and 313 K and produced oxygenated organic species with activation energies in the range of approximately 60+/-10 kJ mol(-1). These reactions displayed half lives between 0.3 and 17 days at 273 K. Oxygen incorporation into such materials--a necessary step toward the formation of biological molecules--is therefore fast compared to processes that occur on geologic timescales, which include the freezing of impact melt pools and possible cryovolcanic sites on Saturn's organic-rich moon Titan.     

Magnetotactic bacteria on Earth and on Mars

Continued interest in the possibility of evidence for life in the ALH84001 Martian meteorite has focused on the magnetite crystals. This review is structured around three related questions: is the magnetite in ALH84001 of biological or non-biological origin, or a mixture of both? does magnetite on Earth provide insight to the plausibility of biogenic magnetite on Mars? could magnetotaxis have developed on Mars? There are credible arguments for both the biological and non-biological origin of the magnetite in ALH84001, and we suggest that more studies of ALH84001, extensive laboratory simulations of non-biological magnetite formation, as well as further studies of magnetotactic bacteria on Earth will be required to further address this question. Magnetite grains produced by bacteria could provide one of the few inorganic traces of past bacterial life on Mars that could be recovered from surface soils and sediments. If there was biogenic magnetite on Mars in sufficient abundance to leave fossil remains in the volcanic rocks of ALH84001, then it is likely that better-preserved magnetite will be found in sedimentary deposits on Mars. Deposits in ancient lakebeds could contain well-preserved chains of magnetite clearly indicating a biogenic origin.     

低轨对地观测卫星凝视成像仪探讨

文章介绍了典型空间信息获取方式及特点，阐述了低轨对地观测卫星凝视成像面临的问题及解决对策，对两种低轨对地观测卫星凝视成像仪及其应用进行了探讨。     

低轨对地观测卫星凝视成像仪探讨

文章介绍了典型空间信息获取方式及特点,阐述了低轨对地观测卫星凝视成像面临的问题及解决对策,对两种低轨对地观测卫星凝视成像仪及其应用进行了探讨。     

地月空间NRHO与DRO在月球探测中的应用研究

针对地月系统三体问题低能往返轨道转移在月球探测中的应用研究,结合天体借力飞行技术与混合优化技术,系统分析了不同目标轨道与借力方位对任务飞行时间与燃料消耗等关键参数的影响,给出了往返轨道设计初值的选择策略。针对轨道设计初值猜想问题,首先采用遗传算法与二体Lambert转移快速确定轨迹拼接点初值。在同时考虑近月点与近地点多约束条件下,基于序列二次规划算法与多重打靶法进一步对燃料最优的地月往返轨道进行研究,并推导了约束方程解析梯度提高设计效率。最后分析近月点高度、不同目标轨道的转移时间与燃耗变化特性,对于考虑月球借力的地月空间轨道往返转移设计及参数选取具有重要的参考价值。     

月基对地观测对月球基地选址需求分析

在月基对地观测优势和我国现有工程任务能力分析基础上,提出了我国月基对地观测的月球基地选址技术流程、选址原则及评价标准。在科学目标和工程任务能力约束下,对影响选址的主要因素,包括月面地形地貌、观测时间、通信能力、能源需求、月球温度环境、兼顾天文观测多重观测体系因素等进行分析,为我国未来月球基地选址提供参考依据。     

Prospects for conventional arms reduction in Europe : CFE and beyond

This is an edited version of an address given by the Minister of Defence of the Netherlands to a symposium held by the Technological and Aerospace Committee of the Western European Union Assembly in Rome, 27 March 1990. The Minister argues that there is a role for a European satellite surveillance system to help verify adherence to conventional forces reduction agreements and to support United Nations peacekeeping efforts. If its technical and financial feasibility are demonstrated, further steps in the direction of an independent European system should be taken as quickly as possible.     

地球反照对低轨卫星太阳电池阵的影响分析

从太阳电池阵接收的光源分析入手,进行地球反照辐射对太阳电池阵的影响分析,提出基于空间几何的地球反照辐射分析方法,建立地球反照辐射的影响程度模型,通过海洋二号(HY-2)太阳同步轨道卫星在轨遥测数据进行了验证。研究结果可为低轨遥感卫星太阳电池阵在轨数据分析和太阳电池阵设计提供一定参考。     

A low-thrust transfer between the Earth–Moon and Sun–Earth systems based on invariant manifolds

A low-energy, low-thrust transfer between two halo orbits associated with two coupled three-body systems is studied in this paper. The transfer is composed of a ballistic departure, a ballistic insertion and a powered phase using low-thrust propulsion to connect these two trajectories. The ballistic departure and insertion are computed by constructing the unstable and stable invariant manifolds of the corresponding halo orbits, and a complete low-energy transfer based on the patched invariant manifolds is optimized using the particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm on the criterion of smallest velocity discontinuity and limited position discontinuity (less than 1 km). Then, the result is expropriated as the boundary conditions for the subsequent low-thrust trajectory design. The fuel-optimal problem is formulated using the calculus of variations and Pontryagin's Maximum Principle in a complete four-body dynamical environment. Then, a typical bang–bang control is derived and solved using the indirect method combined with a homotopic technique. The contributions of the present work mainly consist of two points. Firstly, the global search method proposed in this paper is simply handled using the PSO algorithm, a number of feasible solutions in a fairly wide range can be delivered without a priori or perfect knowledge of the transfers. Secondly, the indirect optimization method is used in the low-thrust trajectory design and the derivations of the first-order necessary conditions are simplified with a modified controlled, restricted four-body model.