Taking stock of Europe's developing space policy: from the European space policy workshops to the European space policy forum

A series of workshops designed to make up for the lack of high-level, informal discussion of European space policy has been running—with a gap during formulation of the EC Green/White Paper on this subject—since September 2002. In view of the progress made in establishing a coherent European strategy, and of various other recent events, such as China's entry into the human spaceflight field, the organizers intend not only to continue the series but also to establish a more permanent, research-oriented European Space Policy Foundation (ESPF). Following a report on the proceedings of the third workshop, held in September 2003, which covered developing an overall European policy, new applications (Galileo and GMES) and human spaceflight, the authors set out a proposal for an ESPF and present the six major research themes it would aim to investigate.     

The importance of space policy teaching in communicating space activities to society

The governments’ priority and budgets for space activities are steadily decreasing and the importance of space activities is not any longer reaching the front pages of the newspaper, as in the 1960s. On the other hand in Europe the people, at large, have shown an important interest and support for space activities. A contribution to bridge the gap between decreasing funding and important support of citizen can come from teaching space policy in universities as well as in special workshops for government, industrial and military circles. The paper will outline a course that fulfils this goal.     

The USSR's prudent space policy

Soviet space policy has long been viewed in the West as militaristic and aimed at achieving superiority, a situation which is abetted by the secrecy in which Soviet space activities are shrouded. This article argues, however, that Soviet space policy is essentially prudent and conservative, and based on exploiting existing technology to the maximum. Whilst it has provided the USSR with an impressive space potential, it does not mean that the USSR is ahead of the USA in space. Nevertheless, in the future the USSR is likely to undertake more international cooperation and offer commercial launch services.     

Administrative reforms and the policy logics of Japanese space policy

The Japanese administrative reform which took place in recent years integrated NASDA and ISAS to create a larger space agency. Why was such an agency called for? What was the purpose behind the administrative reform? This article examines the motivations, objectives and responses to the reform process by using policy logic and institutional analysis to examine the evolution of the Japanese space programme. It argues that the reform aimed to rationalize the national administrative system and salvage the government from financial crisis. Thus, the reform was not designed to strengthen space activities in Japan, and as a result, Japanese space policy making is confused.     

Who’s supporting space activities? An ‘issue public’ for US space policy

Using data from the General Social Survey, this research identifies the issue public of US space policy. Highlighting the need to understand and identify the portion of the public that supports space activities, this study underscores the limited appeal of space for the public as a whole. We find that those who support space activities tend to be younger, male, Republican, and have a higher level of education and socioeconomic status. Because these characteristics make up a relatively small proportion of the American population, those supporting space activities must broaden the appeal of space, making it more accessible and understandable for those with whom the issue does not have much saliency.     

The need for a United Nations space policy

The international community is entering an era of shared global utilities from space and is increasingly reliant on space systems and activities that support a myriad of applications and utilities on Earth. A growing number of states are seeking to develop or extend their space capabilities. At the same time, a variety of non-state actors are also extending their involvement in space activities. The United Nations is the principal inter-governmental forum to deal with various space issues of global importance. Moreover, the United Nations system itself has become increasingly reliant on space systems for its day-to-day operations. In order for the United Nations to play its necessary role in the space arena, it will need to be supported by a space policy. A United Nations space policy would provide over-arching guidance on space activities for UN stakeholders in the space arena; it would inform UN participation in space activities and would promote improved coordination and cooperative governance of outer space activities. A world without a common UN space policy will not be able to respond to the challenges of the rapidly evolving space arena in the 21st century.     

India''s space policy : A developing country in the ‘Space Club’

Athough a poor nation with limited resources, India has spent large amounts of money on sophisticated space programme. It is pursuing a policy of using high technology to solve the country's social and economic problems, and at the same time to strengthen its international position. Satellite-aided communications, educational programmes, meteorology and resources survey and management are thus priority areas. This article examines the history and achievements of India's space programme, and considers the constraints faced and budget and staffing plans. Foreign policy and national security aspects are covered in detail, including the question of whether India's peaceful space policy can be put to military use.     

Canada's early space policy development 1958–1974

In the absence of a mature body of literature on the origins and evolution of the Canadian space program, recent official publications have arbitrarily chosen 1974, the year that Canada's civilian space policy was ratified in the House of Commons, as the popular date of origin. However, this start date ignores several significant policy documents that influenced Canada's space program development prior to that year. This article examines policy that shaped Canada's space program during the ‘golden age’ of space exploration (1958–1974), and will demonstrate that the true origins of the Canadian space program date back much earlier that the current perception.     

International cooperation in space: the AIAA–IAC workshops

Over the past decade the International Activities Committee (IAC) of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) has organized a series of six workshops on international space cooperation. The major findings and recommendations that have emerged from these workshops are summarized, clustered by topic, with a reference to the report on the particular workshop at which they were made. The authors comment on the relevance of certain of the findings in today's environment and the status of implementation of associated recommendations.     

United States space policy and international partnership

Has the current US space policy improved the USA's overall strategic position? Does it affect favorably international partnerships? These questions are examined in terms of security, political economy, and influence. In today's context, where there are more space players, more options, more potential for unintended consequences, and higher stakes, unilateral action is more limited in its effectiveness than in earlier times. Surveying current US space policy, it is not clear that data-driven, analytically based decisions are being made to affect positively national independence, innovation, market creation, and international perceptions of the USA as a trustworthy partner. More promising are the steps taken to bolster a predictable space operational environment and economic competitiveness. Ultimately, in order to achieve American excellence and leadership, a ‘closed loop’ on the policy system is needed, to gauge regularly and systematically whether the US is achieving the desired national outcomes.     

Europe needs a space policy

This article argues that growing space activities are essential to maintain European high-technology ambitions. The approval of ESA's future programme at the ministers' meeting in late 1991 is regarded as an absolute minimum and the adoption of a collective European space policy setting European autonomy, international cooperation, competitiveness and equitable market conditions is urgently required. The article further argues that a power structure to define, adopt and update such a policy and monitor its implementation must be established. It should be based on ESA, with other organizations concerned with space playing advisory roles.     

UK space policy

With an eye on the imminent ESA ministerial meeting, the rationale behind the UK government's often criticized assessment of the utility of space activities is explained. The structure of the country's space policy is described and details given of the UK's involvement in ESA programmes.     

US space policy assessed

Recognizing that, in the wake of major geopolitical changes, technological developments and global recession, the US space programme needed to change, then Vice President Dan Quayle commissioned a review of the USA's space policy which was completed at the very end of 1992. Its findings — in summary form — and recommendations are reprinted here.     

Ukrainian space policy — contributing to national economic development

Following Ukraine's 1991 declaration of independence and the disintegration of the USSR, Ukraine inherited a third of the Soviet Union's space industry. This paper presents an overview of the main features of Ukraine's current policy on the exploitation of this capability as a factor in the transformation of its economy. It illustrates how the policy is being realized in the areas of launch systems, Earth observation, satellite communications and international relations, and concludes that Ukraine's strengths in the space field are counterbalanced by obstacles which must be faced, both within the country and externally.     

The role of the European parliament in the development of a European union space policy

This paper investigates the role of the European Parliament (EP) in the development of the space policy of the EU (EUSP), an important policy area that has been neglected in the political science and EU studies literature. EUSP is the offspring of the European space policy which started as a purely intergovernmental affair, but gradually acquired a supranational dimension. Although the EP did little to initiate this process, it always supported the involvement of the EU in space, and it used both its formal and informal powers to affect and promote its development. Under the consultation procedure the EP managed to become a conditional agenda setter, and under co-decision an influential legislation maker. The changes it introduced in the European global navigation satellite and Earth observation programmes relate not only to the inter-institutional balance and its controlling powers, but to a series of substantive issues also. Consequently, the activism of the EP has played an important part in the development of the EUSP, even if it was not the main force behind its inception.     

US Military space policy 1945–92

This article uses space power theory to analyse the military space policy of the United States during the Cold War period up to the demise of the Soviet Union. It examines the consensus that emerged during this period which sought to prevent the weaponization of space. This consensus was called into question during the latter period with the announcement of the Strategic Defence Initiative and its subsequent orientation to Global Protection Against Limited Strikes system.     

The 2010 US space policy: A view from Europe

The authors examine the principles, goals and guidelines in the new US NSP. While in general favourable to the overall direction of the policy, noting that Europe too has similar goals or, in some cases, should be adopting US ideas, they are sceptical about certain aspects, such as the greater emphasis on commercial partnerships with NASA and the continuing protectionist launch policy. Particular points of concern are the vagueness and lack of clear goals in the human spaceflight programme and the US position on space weaponization at the Conference on Disarmament. Nevertheless, they believe that a similar type of EU-wide policy should be developed by the European Commission.     

Driving UK space policy forward: Time for an annual conference

Despite public enthusiasm, space in the UK is perceived as lacking support from the government and policy often seems incoherent. A knock-on effect is the low number of students pursuing study or careers in science and engineering. Lately, however, space activity has been receiving greater attention from official circles and, in an effort to capitalise on this, a group of individuals has come up with a plan to hold an annual conference on UK space policy. The aims and framework of the conference are described.     

Debating the future of US space policy

A briefing on the subject of US space policy was held in Washington in July 2009 by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Based around some of its recent publications, while emphasizing the US situation and direction, the briefing did not ignore the context of international space activity. In particular it considered China's spacefaring development and suggested ways of engaging more fruitfully with that country. This report presents a summary of the issues raised and recommendations made.