Development overview of the revised NASA Ultra Long Duration Balloon

The desire for longer duration stratospheric flights at constant float altitudes for heavy payloads has been the focus of the development of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) Ultra Long Duration Balloon (ULDB) effort. Recent efforts have focused on ground testing and analysis to understand the previously observed issue of balloon deployment. A revised approach to the pumpkin balloon design has been tested through ground testing of model balloons and through two test flights. The design approach does not require foreshortening, and will significantly reduce the balloon handling during manufacture reducing the chances of inducing damage to the envelope. Successful ground testing of model balloons lead to the fabrication and test flight of a ∼176,000 m³ (∼6.2 MCF – Million Cubic Foot) balloon. Pre-flight analytical predictions predicted that the proposed flight balloon design to be stable and should fully deploy. This paper provides an overview of this first test flight of the revised Ultra Long Duration Balloon design which was a short domestic test flight from Ft. Sumner, NM, USA. This balloon fully deployed, but developed a leak under pressurization. After an extensive investigation to the cause of the leak, a second test flight balloon was fabricated. This ∼176,000 m³ (∼6.2 MCF) balloon was flown from Kiruna, Sweden in June of 2006. Flight results for both test flights, including flight performance are presented.     

A constitutive equation for stratospheric balloon materials

The selection of a suitable material for use as a reliable stratospheric balloon gas barrier and structural component is based on a variety of properties. Due to a more desirable combination of properties, the low density polyethylene that has been used for the last half century has been replaced during the last decade by linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE). This paper describes the effort to characterize the time dependent properties of a 38 micron coextrusion of LLDPE. The nonlinear viscoelastic constitutive equation presented may be used to accurately describe the creep and/or relaxation of this film when subjected to a biaxial state of stress, such as might be required for an extended balloon flight. Recent laboratory data have been used to modify an existing model of LLDPE to account for differences caused by the coextrusion process. The new model will facilitate structural design optimization and reliability assessment, and may be further utilized as a predictive tool to benefit in-flight operations. Current structural analysis techniques based on linear elastic properties have predicted stresses in excess of those which would actually exist.     

Investigation of ultra violet (UV) resistance for high strength fibers

Ultra long duration balloons (ULDB), currently under development by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), requires the use of high strength fibers in the selected super-pressure pumpkin design. The pumpkin shape balloon concept allows clear separation of the load transferring functions of the major structural elements of the pneumatic envelope, the tendons and the film. Essentially, the film provides the gas barrier and transfers only local pressure load to the tendons. The tendons, in the mean time, provide the global pressure containing strength. In that manner, the strength requirement for the film only depends on local parameters. The tendon is made of p-phenylene-2,6-benzobisoxazole (PBO) fibers, which is selected due to its high strength to weight ratio when compared to other high performance, commercially available, fibers. High strength fibers, however, are known to degrade upon exposure to light, particularly at short wavelengths. This paper reports the results of an investigation of the resistance of four commercial high strength fibers to ultra violet (UV) exposure. The results indicate that exposing high strength fibers in continuous yarn form to UV led to serious loss in strength of the fibers except for Spectra^® fibers. The adverse changes in mechanical behavior occurred over short duration of exposure compared to the 100 day duration targeted for these missions. UV blocking finishes to improve the UV resistance of these fibers are being investigated. The application of these specially formulated coatings is expected to lead to significant improvement of the UV resistance of these high performance fibers. In this publication, we report on the mechanical behavior of the fibers pre- and post-exposure to UV, but without application of the blocking finishes.     

An improved shape for zero-pressure balloons

Since the 1950s, efforts have been made to optimise the design of zero-pressure balloons. A possible method for improving on the classical natural-shape is discussed in this paper.It is shown by surface element analysis, that the meridional stress in the balloon film can be adjusted by changing the circumferential stress. It is probable that the stress concentration at the top of a natural-shape balloon can be reduced. A mixed-shape balloon, which has positive circumferential stress above the maximum diameter, has been derived and the results are presented in a form similar to Smalley's ‘sigma’ table.The stress distribution for balloons having different shapes, with or without load tapes, are also described.     

Performance simulation of high altitude scientific balloons

The design and operation of a high altitude scientific balloon requires adequate knowledge of the thermal characteristics of the balloon to make it safe and reliable. The thermal models and dynamic models of altitude scientific balloons are established in this paper. Based on the models, a simulation program is developed. The thermal performances of a super pressure balloon are simulated. The influence of film radiation property and clouds on balloon thermal behaviors is discussed in detail. The results are helpful for the design and operate of safe and reliable high altitude scientific balloons.     

Comportement thermique de ballons pressurises stratospheriques et flux infrarouge tellurique

Pumpkin shaped pressurized balloons (214m³) were launched from Pretoria during September 1978, to perform long duration flights at 95 mb level.On board instrumentation provided information on the general state of the balloon.A thermal model was carefully worked out so that the gas temperature could be related to thermal environment conditions, in which IR earth radiation is found.A balloon trajectory was established permitting the cross-checking of the information thus obtained with that provided by the METEOSAT satellite.The similar results observed enable the researcher to improve his knowledge of this balloon type's behaviour and, to a certain extent, the behaviour of the vehicle itself enables him to gather information on thermal environment conditions, especially IR earth radiation, at flight level.     

High altitude flights in equatorial regions

A thorough analysis of balloon flights made from Hyderabad, India (Latitude 17°28′N, Longitude 78°35′E), and other equatorial sites has been made. It has been shown that limited success is expected for flights made from equatorial latitudes with balloons made out of natural colour polyethylene film, since the best known balloon film in the world today viz. Winzen Stratofilm is tested for low temperature brittleness only at ?80°C., whereas the tropopause temperatures over equatorial latitudes vary between ?80°C and ?90°C. The success becomes even more critical when flights are made with heavy payloads and larger balloons particularly at night when in the absence of solar radiation the balloon film becomes more susceptible to low temperature brittle failure. It is recommended that in case of capped balloons longer caps should be used to fully cover the inflated protion of the balloon at the higher level equatorial tropopause. It is also advised that the conditions such as wind shears in the tropopause should be critically studied before launching and a day with the tropopause temperature nearer to ?80°C should be chosen. Special care also should be taken while handling the balloon on ground and during launching phase. Properties of Winzen Stratofilm have been critically studied and fresh mandates have been recommended on the basis of limiting values of film stresses which caused balloon failures in the equatorial tropopause. It is also emphasized that the data on such flights is still meagre especially for flights with heavy payloads and larger balloons. It has been also shown that it is safest to use balloons made out of grey coloured film which retains its flexibility with the absorption of solar radiation, the success obtained with such balloons so far being 100%. The drawback, however, is that these balloons cannot be used for night flights. Stratospheric wind regimes over Hyderabad are also discussed with a view to determine the period over which long duration flights can be made. The data available, however, is meagre and it is recommended that more frequent special wind ascents be made to collect adequate statistical data from which reliable conclusions could be drawn through critical analysis.     

Mechanical properties of ANTRIX balloon film and fabrication of single cap large volume balloons

The zero pressure plastic balloons used for high altitude studies are generally made from polyethylene material. Tensile properties of the thin film polymer are the key parameters for material selection due to extremely low temperature of −90 °C encountered by the balloons in the tropopause region during the ascent at equatorial latitudes. The physical and structural properties of the material determine the uniformity of the stress distribution over the entire shell. Load stresses from the suspended load propagate via load tapes heat sealed along with the gore seals as per the balloon design. A balance between this heat seal strength and the film strength is a desirable property of the basic resin in terms of the bubble strength, gauge uniformity, and long-term storage properties. In addition, the design of the top shell of the balloon and its stress distribution play an important role since only a fraction of the balloon is deployed during the filling operation and the ascent. In this paper we describe the mechanical properties of the ‘ANTRIX’ film developed by us and the optimized design of single cap balloons, which have been successfully used in our experiments over the past 5 years.     

Udimet 720 Li材料B-P型粘塑性本构建模研究

针对航空发动机用涡轮盘材料Udimet 720 Li,根据高温单轴实验结果,对其在各种载荷条件下的力学行为,开展了采用Bodner-Partom(B-P)统一型弹-粘塑性本构方程进行建模的研究.充分讨论了基于内变量理论的该型本构模型对率相关拉伸、循环硬化及蠕变等力学行为同时进行建模的能力;根据对模型的本构分析,给出了一种分类加整体考虑的模型参数优化策略.通过ABAQUS用户子程序,把该模型结合进了有限元方法,并进行了计算验证.研究表明B-P本构模型可较好地建模高温镍基合金Udimet 720 Li的各种力学行为.      

Transient thermal behavior of stratospheric balloons at float conditions

The prediction of the thermal behavior of stratospheric balloons under varying environmental conditions is one of the key issues in the design and flight test of balloons. In this paper, a three-dimensional transient thermal model is developed to predict the thermal behavior of spherical stratospheric balloons. The diurnal variations of the skin and lifting gas temperatures at float conditions are discussed in detail. The further studies on the thermal behavior of stratospheric balloons are presented also.     

Un dispositif experimental utilisant des ballons plafonnants pour l'etude de la couche limite atmospherique

This paper presents a new system of constant volume balloons used to study the dynamical and thermodynamical properties of the tropospheric boundary layer. The system allows to simultaneously localize up to 30 balloons and to observe thermodynamical characteristics of the air during their flight inside the boundary layer. Each balloon is equipped with a radar reflector and a sounding system giving information each second on pressure, humidity and temperature by sequential emissions which are received at a ground station. The trajectories of balloons are obtained by a non-tracking S-band radar where a special hardware processing unit allows to real time cancellation of most ground clutter. A complete set of the balloons positions is obtained every two or three minutes.The system was tested in October 1984 during a field experiment in the south of France. Results of the experimental procedure and of the quality of the balloon, radar and sounding capabilities are given. The scientific use of constant volume balloons in order to study the atmospheric boundary layer is examined.     

基于褶皱的平流层浮空器升空结构形变模拟

平流层浮空器囊体材料具有非线性、黏弹性、各向异性和不能抗压等特点,起皱现象是在升空膨胀过程中必然会出现的形变状态,褶皱的扩展会影响整个囊体结构的受力状态,改变囊体变形和应力分布.同时,褶皱的存在还会影响囊体结构的动力学行为和空间环境下的热力学分布.通过主应力-主应变相结合准则对褶皱区域进行判别,采用修正褶皱单元的本构矩阵方程的方法对褶皱区域进行处理,地面充氦气试验证明了新方法的模拟结果更加接近测试值.从而为平流层浮空器设计提供了一种有效的分析方法.     

A comprehensive numerical model investigating the thermal-dynamic performance of scientific balloon

The increase of balloon applications makes it necessary for a comprehensive understanding of the thermal and dynamic performance of scientific balloons. This paper proposed a novel numerical model to investigate the thermal and dynamic characteristics of scientific balloon in both ascending and floating conditions. The novel model consists of a dynamic model and thermal model, the dynamic model was solved numerically by a computer program developed with Matlab/Simulink to calculate the velocity and trajectory, the thermal model was solved by the Fluent program to find out the balloon film temperature distribution and inner Helium gas velocity and temperature field. These models were verified by comparing the numerical results with experimental data. Then the thermal and dynamic behavior of a scientific balloon in a real environment were simulated and discussed in details.     

A challenge to the highest balloon altitude

Development of a balloon to fly at higher altitudes is one of the most attractive challenges for scientific balloon technologies. After reaching the highest balloon altitude of 53.0 km using the 3.4 μm film in 2002, a thinner balloon film with a thickness of 2.8 μm was developed. A 5000 m³ balloon made with this film was launched successfully in 2004. However, three 60,000 m³ balloons with the same film launched in 2005, 2006, and 2007, failed during ascent. The mechanical properties of the 2.8 μm film were investigated intensively to look for degradation of the ultimate strength and its elongation as compared to the other thicker balloon films. The requirement of the balloon film was also studied using an empirical and a physical model assuming an axis-symmetrical balloon shape and the static pressure. It was found that the film was strong enough. A stress due to the dynamic pressure by the wind shear is considered as the possible reason for the unsuccessful flights. A 80,000 m³ balloon with cap films covering 9 m from the balloon top will be launch in 2011 to test the appropriateness of this reinforcement.     

Scientific ballooning in Japan – An over view of recent activities

Current status of scientific ballooning in Japan is reviewed. First, I describe successful application of balloon technologies to construct a vessel of transparent plastic film, to contain about 1000 tons of liquid scintillator in Kamioka Liquid Scintillator Anti-Neutrino Detector (KamLAND). KamLAND is a project to study neutrino oscillation phenomena, by detecting anti-neutrinos produced in distant nuclear reactors. Next, I describe high altitude balloons developed by the ISAS balloon group. They developed balloons made from ultra-thin polyethylene film, producing a balloon of volume 60,000 m³ which successfully reached an altitude of 53 km in 2002. This is a world record, the greatest altitude that a balloon has ever achieved. ISAS is applying further effort to develop balloons with even thinner films, to achieve a higher altitude than 53 km. Other recent activities by the ISAS balloon group are briefly described.I also review scientific ballooning projects now operating in Japan, particularly focusing on the Balloon-Borne Experiment with a Superconducting Spectrometer (BESS) program. This is a US–Japan collaborative program that has carried out very precise measurements of antiprotons, protons and other components in primary cosmic rays, as well as measuring the fluxes of atmospheric muons and other components. The results of these observations give us important information to improve our understanding of the production mechanism of antiprotons observed in the primary cosmic rays. The data are also important for analysis of atmospheric neutrino events observed by Super-Kamiokande and other ground-based neutrino detectors. Future prospects of BESS and other balloon-borne cosmic-ray research programs are also presented.     

1/3含口盖复合材料柱壳后屈曲性能

工程结构中复合材料柱壳已经得到了广泛使用,并且屈曲是其结构设计的一个主要问题。由于试验结果与线性屈曲理论分析结果的巨大偏差,线性特征值屈曲分析只能作为结构的一个初步评估方法,进一步分析可选用含初始几何缺陷的后屈曲分析。本文以轴压载荷下的1/3含口盖复合材料柱壳为研究对象,建立ABAQUS有限元模型,分别进行了基于Buckle算法的线性特征值屈曲分析、基于Riks法的含初始几何缺陷的非线性后屈曲分析,所得应变、载荷数值结果与试验结果吻合。非线性Riks后屈曲分析显示结构具有后屈曲承载能力和稳定的后屈曲平衡路径,能更准确地捕捉临界屈曲载荷,所得屈曲模态也更加贴近试验屈曲模态,因此,在设计上以含初始几何缺陷的Riks法得到的结果更加真实可靠。进行了含口盖复合材料柱壳的初始几何缺陷的敏感性分析,结果表明该结构对初始几何缺陷是非常敏感的,为了提高结构抗屈曲性能,应提高加工工艺质量,减少初始几何缺陷。     

航天器粘弹性悬挂减振装置的动力学分析

航天器上精密设备采用粘弹性减振器悬挂安装可获得显著的减振效果。对这类含有粘弹性边界安装阻尼的减振装置，结合弹性有限元及粘弹性边界阻尼的标准固体本构模型，导出了用于时域及频域分析基本运动方程。对时域运动方程给出了一种便捷的仿真求解方法，以仪表板悬挂减振装置为例进行了动力学仿真分析，并初步研究了粘弹性减振器特征参数的不同取值对减振性能的影响。     

A new polyethylene balloon film

After over twenty years there is a new film introduced in the United States for fabricating scientific balloons. The film was developed by Raven and is designated Astrofilm.The film is a result of a critical selection of both the resin and extruding parameters. The film's physical properties and results of a test flight are reported. Also reported are a proposed design modification and failure analysis.