Mars Sample Return: Do Australians trust NASA?

Mars Sample Return (MSR) represents an important scientific goal in space exploration. Any sample return mission will be extremely challenging from a scientific, economic and technical standpoint. But equally testing, will be communicating with a public that may have a very different perception of the mission. A MSR mission will generate international publicity and it is vital that NASA acknowledge the nature and extent of public concern about the mission risks and, perhaps equally importantly, the public’s confidence in NASA’s ability to prepare for and manage these risks. This study investigated the level of trust in NASA in an Australian population sample, and whether this trust was dependent on demographic variables. Participants completed an online survey that explored their attitudes towards NASA and a MSR mission. The results suggested that people believe NASA will complete the mission successfully but have doubts as to whether NASA will be honest when communicating with the public. The most significant finding to emerge from this study was that confidence in NASA was significantly (p < 0.05) related to the respondent’s level of knowledge regarding the risks and benefits of MSR. These results have important implications for risk management and communication.     

A stress index model for balloon design

The modern day scientific research balloon has historically maintained an approximate 85% success rate as launched by the USA National Scientific Balloon Facility (NSBF). Failures were across all operational phases and modes. Balloons fabricated after 1980 have met with less favorable results with catastrophic failures on ascent becoming the principle failure mode. In 1983, the USA National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) conducted an intensive investigation to identify the possible causes for these failures. Although the most probable cause was identified as the balloon material, additional contributing factors were identified. One of these factors, balloon stress, was calculated using a stress equation defining only the total required thickness for launch. No model existed to predict the stress distribution in an ascending balloon. Early in 1984, NASA began the development of a stress index model to establish the relative stress magnitudes at any altitude. Studies were conducted applying this model to several hundred balloon flights. The study indicated a strong correlation between stress levels, failure rates, and the point of maximum stress coinciding with observed failure locations. In January 1985, NASA instituted a stress index design and flight specification that all NASA balloons must meet. The details and results of this work are presented.     

Spacecraft Design-for-Demise implementation strategy & decision-making methodology for low earth orbit missions

Space missions designed to completely ablate upon an uncontrolled Earth atmosphere reentry are likely to be simpler and cheaper than those designed to execute controlled reentry. This is because mission risk (unavailability) stemming from controlled reentry subsystem failure(s) is essentially eliminated. NASA has not customarily implemented Design-for-Demise meticulously. NASA has rather approached Design-for-Demise in an ad hoc manner that fails to entrench Design-for-Demise as a mission design driver. Thus, enormous demisability challenges at later formulation stages of missions aspired to be demisable are evident due to these perpetuated oversights in entrenching Design-for-Demise practices. The investigators hence propose a strategy for a consistent integration of Design-for-Demise practices in all phases of a space mission lifecycle. Secondly, an all-inclusive risk-informed, decision-making methodology referred to as Analytic Deliberative Process is proposed. This criterion facilitates in making a choice between an uncontrolled reentry demisable or controlled reentry. The authors finally conceive and synthesize Objectives Hierarchy, Attributes, and Quantitative Performance Measures of the Analytical Deliberative Process for a Design-for-Demise risk-informed decision-making process.     

Planetary protection policy overview and application to future missions.

The 1967 treaty on the peaceful uses of outer space reflected both concerns associated with the unknown nature of the space environment and the desire of the world scientific community to preserve the pristine nature of celestial objects until such times as they could be studied in an effective manner. Since 1967, NASA has issued policy directives that have adopted the guidelines of COSPAR for protecting the planets from contamination by Earth organisms and for protecting the Earth from the unknown. This paper presents the current status of planetary protection (quarantine) policy within NASA, and a prospectus on how planetary protection and back contamination issues might be addressed in relation to future missions envisioned for development by NASA either independently, or in cooperation with the space agencies of other nations.     

近地小行星采矿与防御计划发展现状

近地小行星交会、绕飞、着陆与采样返回技术经过数10年的发展日趋成熟。美国的OSIRIS-Rex对C类小行星进行特征分析与采样,日本宇宙航空研究开发机构的“隼鸟-2号”任务目的是小行星深层采样。美国国家航空航天局（NASA）和欧洲空间局（ESA）的小行星探测任务开始转向行星防御领域。NASA的ARM（Asteroid Redirect Mission）计划是开展小行星抓捕与轨道重定向,ESA联合NASA提出了小行星撞击与偏转评估计划,拟对双星系统开展撞击实验,为行星防御提供技术积累。此外,行星资源公司和深空工业公司分别规划了小行星商业采矿的蓝图,并已开展相关的在轨技术验证。对近地小行星的探测历程进行了回顾,重点介绍了OSIRIS-Rex、“隼鸟-2号”、NASA和ESA的行星防御计划及小行星采矿公司的商业采矿战略规划,总结了未来开展行星防御与采矿的关键技术。     

Planetary protection implementation on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter mission

In August 2005 NASA launched a large orbiting science observatory, the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO), for what is scheduled to be a 5.4-year mission. High resolution imaging of the surface is a principal goal of the mission. One consequence of this goal however is the need for a low science orbit. Unfortunately this orbit fails the required 20-year orbit life set in NASA Planetary Protection (PP) requirements [NASA. Planetary protection provisions for robotic extraterrestrial missions, NASA procedural requirements NPR 8020.12C, NASA HQ, Washington, DC, April 2005.]. So rather than sacrifice the science goals of the mission by raising the science orbit, the MRO Project chose to be the first orbiter to pursue the bio-burden reduction approach.     

A3钢在厌氧环境中的新型缓蚀剂性能研究

通过微生物方法、失重法和表面分析3种方法研究了4种缓蚀杀菌剂的杀菌作用,以及A3钢在无菌培养液和培养液加硫酸盐还原菌(SRB)的厌氧体系中加入这4种缓蚀杀菌剂的腐蚀行为.结果表明:SRB加速了A3钢的点蚀破坏;缓蚀杀菌剂能够影响SRB的生成规律,抑制SRB和Cl^－的腐蚀破坏,使腐蚀率降低.在4种缓蚀杀菌剂中,性能最好的为BHA-2,其缓蚀率为82.4%,同时兼有缓蚀和杀菌双重功效,且明显优于市场上广泛使用的1227.     

Planetary protection, legal ambiguity and the decision making process for Mars sample return.

As scientists and mission planners develop planetary protection requirements for future Mars sample return missions, they must recognize the socio-political context in which decisions about the mission will be made and pay careful attention to public concerns about potential back contamination of Earth. To the extent that planetary protection questions are unresolved or unaddressed at the time of an actual mission, they offer convenient footholds for public challenges in both legal and decision making realms, over which NASA will have little direct control. In this paper, two particular non-scientific areas of special concern are discussed in detail: 1) legal issues and 2) the decision making process. Understanding these areas is critical for addressing legitimate public concerns as well as for fulfilling procedural requirements regardless whether sample return evokes public controversy. Legal issues with the potential to complicate future missions include: procedural review under National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA); uncertainty about institutional control and authority; conflicting regulations and overlapping jurisdictions; questions about international treaty obligations and large scale impacts; uncertanities about the nature of the organism; and constitutional and regulatory concerns about quarantine, public health and safety. In light of these important legal issues, it is critical that NASA consider the role and timing of public involvement in the decision making process as a way of anticipating problem areas and preparing for legitimate public questions and challenges to sample return missions.     

Implementing planetary protection requirements for sample return missions.

NASA is committed to exploring space while avoiding the biological contamination of other solar system bodies and protecting the Earth against potential harm from materials returned from space. NASA's planetary protection program evaluates missions (with external advice from the US National Research Council and others) and imposes particular constraints on individual missions to achieve these objectives. In 1997 the National Research Council's Space Studies Board published the report, Mars Sample Return: Issues and Recommendations, which reported advice to NASA on Mars sample return missions, complementing their 1992 report, The Biological Contamination of Mars Issues and Recommendations. Meanwhile, NASA has requested a new Space Studies Board study to address sample returns from bodies other than Mars. This study recognizes the variety of worlds that have been opened up to NASA and its partners by small, relatively inexpensive, missions of the Discovery class, as well as the reshaping of our ideas about life in the solar system that have been occasioned by the Galileo spacecraft's discovery that an ocean under the ice on Jupiter's moon Europa might, indeed, exist. This paper will report on NASA's planned implementation of planetary protection provisions based on these recent National Research Council recommendations, and will suggest measures for incorporation in the planetary protection policy of COSPAR.     

灭菌模块中流速和银离子浓度分布模拟计算

无菌水是载人航天器生命健康的保障条件.灭菌模块安装在水处理系统末端,向净化水释放规定浓度的银离子,起到杀菌和长期保存作用,使净化水达到饮用水质标准.水流过金属壁面,根据交换流域采用标准k-ε模型标准壁面函数,针对600mL·min-1流量工况建立流场和银离子浓度场的计算模型.灭菌模块阴阳电极30s交替互换牵引浓度变化.为符合实际工况,建立模型时通过反复迭代的方式进行求解.对流速和银离子产生速率的结果进行分析发现,银离子浓度最高部位均出现在阳极表面附近,阴阳极反复转换可有效降低电极表面附近的银离子浓度.结合理论计算结果可知,灭菌模块工作过程中不会有AgOH沉淀析出,从而确定工艺参数,指导工程设计.根据仿真结果分析给出了灭菌模块优化建议.      

Recent materials problems relating to catastrophic balloon failures

Balloons fabricated of thin polyethylene materials have provided relatively inexpensive and reliable scientific research platforms for approximately three decades. Reliability of the modern day balloon, as launched by the U.S.A. National Scientific Balloon Facility (NSBF), has been approximately 85%. Recent balloon failures, coupled with an increased occurrence of catastrophic failures, created grave concern over the integrity of the present balloon inventory of the U.S.A National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). An investigative team was established by NASA to review the circumstances surrounding the catastrophic balloon failures, determine the cause and to make recommendations to correct the problem and to prevent its reoccurrence. The most probable cause of failure as determined by the investigation was the polyethylene balloon film, although the film had passed the established standard quality control measures of the film manufacturer. The approach, findings, and conclusions of the investigation are presented along with planned procedures to assure future quality balloon film for NASA balloons.     

Educational opportunities within the NASA Specialized Center of Research and Training in Gravitational Biology.

The NASA Specialized Center of Research and Training (NSCORT) in Gravitational Biology was established at Kansas State University, supported through NASA's Life Science Division, Office of Space Science and Applications. Educational opportunities, associated with each of the research projects which form the nucleus of the Center, are complemented by program enrichments such as scholar exchanges and linkages to other NASA and commercial programs. The focus of this training program, and a preliminary assessment of its successes, are described.     

Planetary protection issues for Mars sample acquisition flight projects.

The planned NASA sample acquisition flight missions to Mars pose several interesting planetary protection issues. In addition to the usual forward contamination procedures for the adequate protection of Mars for the sake of future missions, there are reasons to ensure that the sample is not contaminated by terrestrial microbes from the acquisition mission. Recent recommendations by the Space Studies Board (SSB) of the National Research Council (United States), would indicate that the scientific integrity of the sample is a planetary protection concern (SSB, 1997). Also, as a practical matter, a contaminated sample would interfere with the process for its release from quarantine after return for distribution to the interested scientists. These matters are discussed in terms of the first planned acquisition mission.     

Overview of current capabilities and research and technology developments for planetary protection

The pace of scientific exploration of our solar system provides ever-increasing insights into potentially habitable environments, and associated concerns for their contamination by Earth organisms. Biological and organic-chemical contamination has been extensively considered by the COSPAR Panel on Planetary Protection (PPP) and has resulted in the internationally recognized regulations to which spacefaring nations adhere, and which have been in place for 40 years. The only successful Mars lander missions with system-level “sterilization” were the Viking landers in the 1970s. Since then different cleanliness requirements have been applied to spacecraft based on their destination, mission type, and scientific objectives. The Planetary Protection Subcommittee of the NASA Advisory Council has noted that a strategic Research & Technology Development (R&TD) roadmap would be very beneficial to encourage the timely availability of effective tools and methodologies to implement planetary protection requirements. New research avenues in planetary protection for ambitious future exploration missions can best be served by developing an over-arching program that integrates capability-driven developments with mission-driven implementation efforts. This paper analyzes the current status concerning microbial reduction and cleaning methods, recontamination control and bio-barriers, operational analysis methods, and addresses concepts for human exploration. Crosscutting research and support activities are discussed and a rationale for a Strategic Planetary Protection R&TD Roadmap is outlined. Such a roadmap for planetary protection provides a forum for strategic planning and will help to enable the next phases of solar system exploration.     

The conceptual design of a hybrid life support system based on the evaluation and comparison of terrestrial testbeds.

This report summarizes a trade study of different options of a bioregenerative Life Support System (LSS) and a subsequent conceptual design of a hybrid LSS. The evaluation was based mainly on the terrestrial testbed projects MELISSA (ESA) and BIOS (Russia). In addition, some methods suggested by the Advanced Life Support Project (NASA) were considered. Computer models, including mass flows were established for each of the systems with the goal of closing system loops to the extent possible. In order to cope with the differences in the supported crew size and provided nutrition, all systems were scaled for supporting a crew of six for a 780 day Mars mission (180 days transport to Mars; 600 days surface period) as given in the NASA Design Reference Mission Scenario [Hoffman, S.J., Kaplan, D.L. Human exploration of Mars: the Reference Mission of the NASA Mars Exploratory Study, 1997]. All models were scaled to provide the same daily allowances, as of calories, to the crew. Equivalent System Mass (ESM) analysis was used to compare the investigated system models against each other. Following the comparison of the terrestrial systems, the system specific subsystem options for Food Supply, Solid Waste Processing, Water Management and Atmosphere Revitalization were evaluated in a separate trade study. The best subsystem technologies from the trade study were integrated into an overall design solution based on mass flow relationships. The optimized LSS is mainly a bioregenerative system, complemented by a few physico-chemical elements, with a total ESM of 18,088 kg, which is about 4 times higher than that of a pure physico-chemical LSS, as designed in an earlier study.     

Status of the NASA continuing investigation of catastrophic balloon failures

Since the beginning of the 1980's, the USA National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Balloon Program has been besieged with a continuing problem of catastrophic balloon failures. In 1983 NASA conducted an investigation to identify possible causes for the failures and to determine the necessary corrective action(s) to prevent further occurrence of the problem. The investigation indicated the most probable cause of the failures was the balloon material. Subsequent corrective action(s) were taken to eliminate the problem by establishing a material acceptance criteria for balloon film. Although improvements have been noted in certain classes of balloons, the problem of catastrophic balloon failures continues. Efforts continue, to determine the cause(s) of the diminished performance of current balloons, including investigation of the microstructure of present and past balloon film, stress effects and simplified stress modeling including shape studies, and the equipment and procedures used in the manufacture of balloons. Most recently, a special team of experts has been assembled to aid in the investigation of the failure problems and the methods needed for a solution. The findings and status of the continuing investigation along with the future plans for the NASA program are presented.     

国外载人航天器故障诊断技术

详细介绍了故障诊断技术在国外载人航天器故障诊断中的应用及发展过程，并对专家系统技术进行了重点分析和介绍，国外载人航天器故障诊断经历了60年代简单的状态监测（水星号），70年代的基于算法的诊断（阿波罗），一直到80年代的基于知识的智能诊断（航天飞机），三个阶段，还介绍了NASA为其航天飞机主发动机透平泵和空间站电源系统开发的故障诊断专家系统，并对航天领域故障诊断技术特点进行了综合分析，同时指出了航天领域故障诊断技术的发展趋势。     

Future U.S. ocean color missions—OCI,MODIS and HIRIS

The Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS) launched by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) on the Nimbus-7 Satellite in 1978 has provided exceptionally valuable data for studies of the productivity of the ocean, fisheries, the detection of oceanic fronts and currents, and the optical properties of the ocean. NASA has been working with the scientific community, the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), France's Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES), and industry to develop an Ocean Color Imager (OCI), a follow-on instrument which would provide the near real-time and global data necessary to fill these needs in the 1990's. The Earth Observing Satellite Company (EOSAT) is considering flying an ocean and land wide-field color instrument which would meet these needs on Landsat 6 or 7 planned for launch in 1989 and 1991, respectively. It would provide eight ocean color channels for improved atmospheric correction and in-water algorithms, global coverage and near real-time data for operational uses. In the mid 1990's NASA is planning to fly a Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS) and a High Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (HIRIS) as part of the Earth Observing System (Eos) on the Polar Platform of the Space Station. These instruments are array spectrometers which would provide full spectral resolution in the visible and infrared. This opens the possibility of separating different groups of phytoplankton, suspended sediments and other substances in the water. Also, HIRIS would have across track pointing ability which will allow high resolution rapid sampling of dynamic coastal areas and estuaries.     

Selection of sterilization methods for planetary return missions.

Two tasks must be accomplished to provide planetary protection for Mars return missions: (1) sterilization of the scientific module to be landed on Mars and (2) reliable sterilization of all material returned to Earth, while ensuring the scientific integrity of martian samples. This paper examines similarity and differences between these two tasks, and includes a discussion of technological implementation conditions and the nature of terrestrial and hypothesized martian microflora. The feasibility of a number of chemical and physical (ultraviolet and ionizing radiation and heating) methods of sterilization for use on the ground and onboard are discussed and compared. A combination of different methods will probably be selected as the most appropriate for ensuring planetary protection on the return mission.