Synthetic Aperture Radar

The general theory of side-looking synthetic aperture radar systems is developed. A simple circuit-theory model is developed; the geometry of the system determines the nature of the prefilter and the receiver (or processor) is the postfilter. The complex distributed reflectivity density appears as the input, and receiver noise is first considered as the interference which limits performance. Analysis and optimization are carried out for three performance criteria (resolution, signal-to-noise ratio, and least squares estimation of the target field). The optimum synthetic aperture length is derived in terms of the noise level and average transmitted power. Range-Doppler ambiguity limitations and optical processing are discussed briefly. The synthetic aperture concept for rotating target fields is described. It is observed that, for a physical aperture, a side-looking radar, and a rotating target field, the azimuth resolution is ?/? where ? is the change in aspect angle over which the target field is viewed, The effects of phase errors on azimuth resolution are derived in terms of the power density spectrum of the derivative of the phase errors and the performance in the absence of phase errors.     

The Segmented Aperture Synthetic Aperture Radar (SASAR)

A new concept in synthetic aperture radar, called SASAR, which uses a segmented aperture, is described. Use of the segmented aperture allows appreciable extra receiving antenna gain to be realized. Each subarray of the receive antenna is equal in length to the transmit antenna; the system performance is increased approximately by a factor equal to the number of subarrays. To allow array combination of the subarray signal outputs requires a phase-shift factor (varying with azimuth) to be applied to each subarray signal. A digital implementation of this preprocessor is sketched out; it uses a push-down storage stack to store the range histories for a synthetic aperture from each subarray. Appropriate phase shifts are added to the stacks and a sum of stack values then provides the combined output range history sequence. Possibilities of using analog delay lines for preprocessing are also discussed. Pattern errors due to subarray size and receive array near field are examined and constraints are given.     

Synthetic Aperture Imaging Radar and Moving Targets

This paper considers the effects of slowly moving targets as they appear in the output of an airborne coherent side-looking synthetic aperture imaging radar. The image of a moving reflector is described, and two approaches to airborne moving target indication (AMTI) are summarized. It is shown that the effects of target movement are decreased as the radar scan rate is increased, and are increased as the (Doppler processed) compression ratio is increased.     

Ambiguities in Spacebornene Synthetic Aperture Radar Systems

Several aspects of range and azimuth (time delay and Doppler) ambiguities in spaceborne synthetic aperture radars (SARs) are examined. An accurate method to evaluate the ratio of the intensities of the ambiguities to that of the signal is described. This method has been applied to the nominal SAR system on SEASAT and the variations of this ratio as a function of orbital latitude and attitude control error are discussed. It is also shown that the detailed range migration-azimuth phase history of an ambiguity is different from that of a signal. The images of ambiguities are, therefore, dispersed. Several examples of such dispersed images observed by the SEASAT SAR are presented. These dispersions are eliminated when the processing parameters are adjusted appropriately. Finally, a method is described which uses a set of multiple pulse repetition frequencies to determine the absolute values of the Doppler centroid frequencies for SARs with high carrier frequencies and relatively poor attitude measurements.     

Synthetic Aperture Radar System Design for Random Field Classification

The optimum design of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) systems intended to classify randomly reflecting areas, such as agricultural fields, characterized by a reflectivity density spectral density is studied. Assuming areas of known shape and location, the binary case, and a certain Gaussian signal field property, and ignoring interfield interference, the problem solution is given. The optimum processor includes conventional matched filter processing, but is nonlinear; a coherent optical system realization is outlined. The performance is approximated using a x2 assumption and bounded by the Cernov bound. A fundamental design problem involves the system bandwidth analogously, in a special case, as in diversity communication systems; a solution is given based on the Cernov bound. A set of summary design curves is given and exemplified by a satellite SAR system design. Also discussed is the measurement of reflectivity spectral density amplitude with imaging sidelooking (synthetic or ?brute-force?) radars and the maximum likelihood estimator's accuracy and realization with a coherent optical system. It is also shown that a CW modulation is useable if the random reflectivity is, effectively, isotropic. Finally, the reflectivity density spectral density amplitude, when constant over the spatial bandpass of the measuring system, is related to the scattering cross-section density commonly measured.     

A Data Compression Technique for Synthetic Aperture Radar Images

A data compression technique is developed for synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery. The technique is based on an SAR image model and is designed to preserve the local statistics in the image by an adaptive variable rate modification of block truncation coding (BTC). A data rate of approximately 1.6 bit/pixel is achieved with the technique while maintaining the image quality and cultural (pointlike) targets. The algorithm requires no large data storage and is computationally simple.     

合成孔径雷达对抗技术的研究

随着合成孔径雷达（SAR）系统在军事领域中的广泛应用,各军事强国纷纷开展了对SAR系统的对抗策略和技术研究,寻求有效对抗SAR成像侦察系统的制胜之策。经过多年的探索和实践,有一种看法已经被普遍认可,即在现有技术条件下,完全可以采用多种电子对抗措施（ECM）来破坏SAR系统的作战能力。     

Scanning Spaceborne Synthetic Aperture Radar with Integrated Radiometer

Spaceborne synthetic aperture radar systems are severely constrained to a narrow swath by ambiguity limitations. Here a vertically scanned-beam synthetic aperture system (SCANSAR) is proposed as a solution to this problem. The potential length of synthetic aperture must be shared between beam positions, so the along-track resolution is poorer; a direct tradeoff exists between resolution and swath width. The length of the real aperture is independently traded against the number of scanning positions. Design curves and equations are presented for spaceborne SCANSARs for altitudes between 400 and 1400 km and inner angles of incidence between 20° and 40°. When the real antenna is approximately square, it may also be used for a microwave radiometer. The combined radiometer and synthetic-aperture (RADISAR) should be useful for those applications where the poorer resolution of the radiometer is useful for some purposes, but the finer resolution of the radar is needed for others.     

A Discussion of Digital Processing in Synthetic Aperture Radar

This is a summary paper describing the processing of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data using digital correlation algorithms. Fundamental SAR theory as it applies to the various SAR modes, namely, strip mapping, spotlight mapping, and Doppler beam sharpened mapping, is described and a baseline design applicable to all SAR modes is presented. Digital processor design is developed, starting with a simple single filter mechanization and proceeding through more complex processing algorithms. Prefilter design is discussed, as is the more advanced processing algorithms, namely, multiple parallel prefilters, two-stage correlation, and FFT processing. The primary processor tradeoff is increased functional complexity versus reduced arithmetic and memory requirements. For high-resolution applications, the arithmetic requirements can be reduced by an order of magnitude or more by implementing the more advanced processing algorithms.     

The Information Content of Synthetic Aperture Radar Images of Terrain

A statistical model is developed that portrays an imaging radar as a noisy communication channel with multiplicative noise, and the model is used to evaluate the average amount of information that can be extracted about a target from its radar image. The average information content is also used to define a measure of radiometric resolution for radar images. It is shown that the information content and the resolution capabilities of an imaging radar reach a limit beyond which an increase in scene dynamic range does not improve the information content or the resolution. This limitation results from the multiplicative nature of the noise introduced in the imaging process.     

合成孔径雷达回波模拟方法研究

合成孔径雷达回波模拟技术在SAR系统的研制、SAR图像处理等方面具有十分重要的作用.目前对于SAR回波模拟技术的研究还不够深入.针对该问题开展SAR回波模拟方法研究,通过对合成孔径雷达基本原理的分析及回波信号数学模型的推导,提出了一种较为通用的合成孔径雷达回波模拟方法,根据该方法采用Matlab进行了不同类型SAR回波模拟仿真试验.试验结果表明:该方法适用于单点目标、多点目标、面目标、分布目标及真实场景等多种类型的SAR回波信号仿真,对SAR系统设计及性能分析具有重要的参考意义.     

Synthetic Aperture Imaging with Maneuvers

A digital processing approach has been devised for performing motion compensation in a high-resolution airborne synthetic aperture radar in the presence of simultaneous longitudinal (speed change), lateral (turn), and vertical (climb or dive) maneuvers. Both side-look and squint are accommodated in a unified scheme, which is validated by various simulation runs reported herein. Present attention is focused on theoretical verification, irrespective of mechanization or specific parameter values.     

The Circular Synthetic Radar

A new type of synthetic radar, the circular synthetic radar, uses a simple interferometer whose elements are mounted at the ends of a horizontal boom rotating about a vertical mast. Pulses are radiated alternately ?in-phase? and in ?phase-quadrature.? The returning echoes are also detected incoherently, both ?in-phase? and in ?phase-quadrature.? The four distinct outputs are fed into an on-line computer which, after a Fourier analysis, synthesizes a mapping function of the azimuthal distribution of targets.     

Hard Limiting in Synthetic Aperture Signal Processing

In synthetic aperture radar a large linear phased array is formed from the rapid movement of a single element through each position in the array. Storage and coherent combining of the successive radar echoes are central to the array-forming process. Optical processing is the most common technique because of the efficiency with which Fourier transformation may be accomplished with simple optics. Real-time operation, however, requires all-electronic processing, which is difficult to accomplish because of the huge quantity of data to be manipulated. Dynamic range compression by hard limiting may ease the problem by reducing the number of bits per frame. The effects of hard limiting are analyzed in this paper. It is shown that large targets simultaneously illuminated by the radar antenna will produce image targets or ghosts displaced in angle. Statistically homogeneous clutter will "linearize" the hard-limited receiver and suppress the ghosts without loss in contrast, as does thermal noise if it is larger than the target echoes. Pulse compression reduces the probability of images from prominent targets. Judicious choice of the pulse-compression waveform is a powerful tool for destroying coherent buildup of images from all large targets not in the same range resolution cell. Linear FM, the most common choice, unfortunately does not exhibit this desirable property.     

Synthetic Aperture Processing with Limited Storage and Presumming

The number of transmitted pulses associated with the Doppler histories of a side-looking radar may greatly exceed the desired azimuth compression ratio of the system. This discrepancy is taxing if the storage required for the azimuth processing is provided by cores, magnetic drums, and the like. Thus, as a practical matter, one considers presumming of the data prior to correlation in an attempt to achieve the desired performance with a minimum amount of digital storage. In this paper, the optimum (in terms of resolution) presummer is derived, along with the optimum apportionment of the available storage capacity between the presumming and correlation operations. Under the condition (or generally pessimistic approximation) that the illumination pattern of the antenna uniformly illuminates a Doppler bandwidth equal to the PRF of the radar, the optimum presumming coefficients are the first Np Fourier coefficients of a function which is one of the Doppler bandwidth to be correlated and zero on the remainder of the PRF bandwidth, where Np is the number of transmitted radar pulses over which presumming is provided. Increasing Np reduces the degradation due to presumming, but may leave inadequate storage for correlation. Hence, we optimize the apportionment between the two operations and present the obtainable resolution as a function of total storage and the number of transmitted pulses in the received Doppler history.     

星载成像雷达运动补偿

本文分析了星载成像雷达的误差来源,运动误差产生的影响,对各种运动补偿方法进行了理论分析和比较.     

CTD MTI Radar Filter with Charge-Transfer Inefficiency Compensation

The design and implementation of a second-order nonrecursive moving target indication (MTI) radar filter using commercially available charge-transfer devices as delay lines are described. A simple technique is included to compensate for the device charge-transfer in-efficiency and its sensitivity is analyzed. Experimental laboratory tests and results in an operating radar system are reported showing the good performance of the realized MTI radar filter.     

基于低成本INS的机载SAR运动补偿研究

为了提高雷达成像的质量．得到高分辨率的SAR图像就必须保证有精确的运动补偿方法来校正运动误差对成像的影响。提出了一种基于惯导数据INS的视线方向位移误差的补偿方法,采用了低精度低成本的INS．对此部分的原理及实现进行了深入的建模分析和推导,并给出仿真结果。结果表明,基于惯导进行运动补偿时低精度也可满足要求。     

视觉测试系统校准装置耦合补偿控制

本校准装置是用来校准用于测试火箭喷管三维运动的视觉系统,为其提供标准的静态和动态运动参数.基于动量矩定理和欧拉动力学方程,推导出了双轴摆动的非线性耦合动力学模型,分析了轴间转动惯量耦合、速度耦合及力矩耦合作用规律.通过SIMULINK仿真验证模型参考自适应系统有效地补偿了耦合力矩的扰动.提高了联动时内框轴的速率精度.