Physics-based model for boundary layer transition prediction in a wide speed range

A new physics-based model employing three transport equations is developed for the simulation of boundary layer transitions in a wide speed range. The laminar kinetic energy is used to represent pretransitional streamwise velocity fluctuations, taking account of different instability modes. The fluctuation velocity components normal to the streamwise direction are modeled by another transport equation. Transition is triggered automatically with the development of the pretransitional velocity fluctuations. In the fully turbulent region, the model reverts to the k-ω turbulence model. Different test cases, including subsonic, supersonic and hypersonic flows around flat plates, airfoils and straight cones, are numerically simulated to validate the performance of the model. The results demonstrate the excellent predictive capabilities of the model in different paths of transition. The model can serve as a basis for the extension of additional transition mechanisms, such as rotation and curvature effects, roughness-induced transition and crossflow-induced transition.     

对称交叉激波和湍流边界层相互作用的数值研究

针对两种双尖鳍外形的对称交叉激波与湍流边界层相互作用,采用N-S方程和两种湍流模型进行了计算。研究了网格收敛性、鳍的角度和湍流模型对壁面压强、Stanton数和壁面摩擦力线的影响。弱相互作用的计算结果较好,强相互作用的壁面压强和摩擦力线的计算结果与试验吻合较好,而Stanton数的计算结果较差,峰值高达试验的2.5倍左右。随着鳍的角度的增加,壁面压强和Stanton数的分布从单调分布发展为M型分布,两者的峰值不在相同的位置。湍流模型对壁面压强和壁面摩擦力线影响很小,对Stanton数计算的影响很大,SST模型比BSL模型表现好一些。     

一种基于动模态分解的翼型流动转捩预测新方法

考虑自由转捩的定常/非定常流动Navier-Stokes方程数值求解,对于翼型流动细节的精确模拟和气动力的精确预测均具有十分重要的意义。采用动模态分解(DMD)方法进行流动稳定性分析,再结合e N方法,提出了一套适用于翼型绕流的转捩预测新方法,称为DMD/e N方法。相比于传统的线性稳定性分析方法,DMD方法不需要求解附面层方程和线性稳定性方程,也没有引入平行流假设,具有更好的理论适用性和算法鲁棒性。开展了NLF0416、S809和SD7003等翼型的转捩预测数值验证研究,通过与实验结果以及与传统的基于线性稳定性分析的e N方法的比较,验证了本文所发展的转捩预测新方法在预测翼型的定常流动和非定常流动转捩方面的正确性,也表明了该方法具有解决含层流分离泡的翼型绕流转捩预测的能力。     

Capturing transition and non-transition flows with a new shear stress transport model

A new Shear Stress Transport(SST) k-ω model is devised to integrate salient features of both the non-transitional SST k-ω model and correlation-based γ-Reθtransition model. An exceptionally simplified approach is applied to extend the New SST(NSST) model capabilities toward transition/non-transition predictions. Bradshaw’s stress-intensity factor ■ can be parameterized with the wall-distance dependent Reynolds number ■; however, as the Reyis replaced by a ‘‘flow-structure-adaptive” parameter Rμ=...     

Numerical prediction and wind tunnel experiment for a pitching unmanned combat air vehicle

The low-speed flowfield for a generic unmanned combat air vehicle (UCAV) is investigated both experimentally and numerically. A wind tunnel experiment was conducted with the Boeing 1301 UCAV at a variety of angles of attack up to 70 degrees, both statically and with various frequencies of pitch oscillation (0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 Hz). In addition, pitching was performed about three longitudinal locations on the configuration (the nose, 35% MAC, and the tail). Solutions to the unsteady, laminar, compressible Navier–Stokes equations were obtained on an unstructured mesh to match results from the static and dynamic experiments. The computational results are compared with experimental results for both static and pitching cases. Details about the flowfield, including vortex formation and interaction, are shown and discussed, including the non-linear aerodynamic characteristics of the vehicle.     

基于双eN方法的翼身组合体流动转捩自动判断

发展翼身组合体复杂外形流动转捩自动判断方法,对高亚声速民机自然层流（NLF）机翼设计具有重要意义。使用多块结构化网格和三维雷诺平均Navier-Stokes（RANS）方程求解器,耦合边界层方程求解和基于线性稳定性理论（LST）的完全双e^N方法,发展了一套可同时计及Tollmien-Schlichting波和横流不稳定性扰动诱导转捩的翼身组合体流动转捩自动判断方法。对DLR-F4翼身组合体绕流进行了转捩自动判断,将得到的转捩位置与试验结果进行比较,验证了所发展方法的正确性。使用上述方法对配置自然层流机翼的中短程民机翼身组合体外形进行了数值模拟,并将结果与单独机翼的转捩位置进行了对比,结果表明机身三维位移效应增强了自然层流后掠机翼边界层的横流不稳定性强度,导致翼根转捩位置提前至前缘区。     

Efficient aerodynamic shape optimization using variable-fidelity surrogate models and multilevel computational grids

A variable-fidelity method can remarkably improve the efficiency of a design optimization based on a high-fidelity and expensive numerical simulation, with assistance of lower-fidelity and cheaper simulation(s). However, most existing works only incorporate “two” levels of fidelity, and thus efficiency improvement is very limited. In order to reduce the number of high-fidelity simulations as many as possible, there is a strong need to extend it to three or more fidelities. This article proposes a novel variable-fidelity optimization approach with application to aerodynamic design. Its key ingredient is the theory and algorithm of a Multi-level Hierarchical Kriging (MHK), which is referred to as a surrogate model that can incorporate simulation data with arbitrary levels of fidelity. The high-fidelity model is defined as a CFD simulation using a fine grid and the lower-fidelity models are defined as the same CFD model but with coarser grids, which are determined through a grid convergence study. First, sampling shapes are selected for each level of fidelity via technique of Design of Experiments (DoE). Then, CFD simulations are conducted and the output data of varying fidelity is used to build initial MHK models for objective (e.g. C_D) and constraint (e.g. C_L, C_m) functions. Next, new samples are selected through infill-sampling criteria and the surrogate models are repetitively updated until a global optimum is found. The proposed method is validated by analytical test cases and applied to aerodynamic shape optimization of a NACA0012 airfoil and an ONERA M6 wing in transonic flows. The results confirm that the proposed method can significantly improve the optimization efficiency and apparently outperforms the existing single-fidelity or two-level-fidelity method.     

A three-equation transition model with mechanical considerations

A three-equation transition model based on the transition V-model is proposed for subsonic flows in this study. Considering the mechanical approximation of the generation process of the pre-transitional vorticities, the value of laminar Reynolds shear stress related to the mean shear deformation was calculated in the original transition V-model. Then a new transition model, named V-SA model, was proposed, which considered the phenomenological process of transition and presented great results for flows with and without pressure gradient. It is well-known that the baseline Shear Stress Transport (SST) turbulence model shows excellent performance of accuracy and robustness in plentiful flow cases, but it is important to predict boundary layer transition. The current model (V-SST) successfully couples the V-model to the SST turbulence model by introducing the effective turbulent viscosity and additional correction terms into the transport equations. A thorough evaluation of its ability to predict transition features is performed versus the well-documented flat plate of ERCOFTAC, including T3A and T3B without pressure gradient, T3L2 and T3L3 with semi-circular leading edge, the three-dimensional 6:1 prolate-spheroid under two angles of attack, and the NLR-7301 airfoil under different Mach numbers. Numerical results show that the current model has an attractive and superior performance in the simulation of boundary layer transition processes     

转捩模式与转捩准则预测高超声速边界层流动

对原始的k-ω-γ转捩模式和"层流+转捩准则"模型进行了改进,在2种方法中分别增加了横流模态时间尺度和横流转捩准则用于预测横流失稳诱导转捩。通过对网格预处理可并行计算获得边界层外缘信息以及边界层内横流速度。采用不同雷诺数条件下的0°攻角尖锥以及HIFiRE-5外形对2种方法预测高超声速边界层转捩的性能进行了比较分析。研究结果表明,2种方法均能正确反映高超声速边界层转捩起始位置和转捩区长度随雷诺数的变化趋势,但不能捕捉转捩区热流峰值;"层流+转捩准则"模型计算得到的传热系数在全湍流区较k-ω-γ转捩模式偏高。对于同时存在流向不稳定和横流不稳定的HIFiRE-5外形,改进的k-ω-γ转捩模式和改进的"层流+转捩准则"模型相比于原始的模型均能更加准确地预测中心线两侧横流失稳诱导形成的转捩;对于中心线附近因速度剖面拐点引起的边界层转捩,"层流+转捩准则"模型由于与边界层厚度相关,预测得到的转捩位置较试验结果靠前,k-ω-γ转捩模式与试验结果吻合很好。     

Gamma-Theta经验转捩模型在DES中的应用

与RANS湍流模型相比,DES湍流模型的边界层外自由流部分存在LES区,该区域的涡粘性会有所降低。为了研究了这一特征对γ-Reθt转捩模型的影响,以平板实验为算例,选取基于k-w SST湍流模型的DES模型和DDES模型,检验γ-Reθt转捩模型在DES模型和DDES模型中的表现。结果表明：DES模型和DDES模型使转捩位置推迟,SST—DES模型由于对网格过度敏感而没有触发转捩,SST—DDES模型使转捩位置后移较少;DDES模型比DES模型更适合γ-Reθt转捩模型;转捩经验关系需要进行修正后才能将γ-Reθt应用于DDES模型。     

平衡空气模型的流动稳定性及转捩预测

研究高超声速平板边界层考虑真实气体效应的流动稳定性问题.采用7组元化学反应平衡模型,黏度和导热系数采用混合律,同时考虑组元浓度扩散引起的能量传递,在马赫数为10~20、壁面温度为500~3500K、飞行高度为20~30.5km等条件下,对平板边界层流动的稳定性进行了分析,给出了扰动演化相对增长的N值.计算结果表明:高马赫数飞行中不稳定扰动的第3模态将与第2模态合并,共同影响转捩;高温真实气体的流动稳定性特征,随着马赫数、壁面温度、飞行高度变化的基本趋势与完全气体的基本一致;与完全气体相比,真实气体的相对增长N值包络线较小,表明高温真实气体将抑制转捩发生.      

Validation of numerical prediction of dynamic derivatives: The DLR-F12 and the Transcruiser test cases

The dynamic derivatives are widely used in linear aerodynamic models in order to determine the flying qualities of an aircraft: the ability to predict them reliably, quickly and sufficiently early in the design process is vital in order to avoid late and costly component redesigns. This paper describes experimental and computational research dealing with the determination of dynamic derivatives carried out within the FP6 European project SimSAC. Numerical and experimental results are compared for two aircraft configurations: a generic civil transport aircraft, wing-fuselage-tail configuration called the DLR-F12 and a generic Transonic CRuiser, which is a canard configuration. Static and dynamic wind tunnel tests have been carried out for both configurations and are briefly described within this paper. The data generated for both the DLR-F12 and TCR configurations include force and pressure coefficients obtained during small amplitude pitch, roll and yaw oscillations while the data for the TCR configuration also include large amplitude oscillations, in order to investigate the dynamic effects on nonlinear aerodynamic characteristics. In addition, dynamic derivatives have been determined for both configurations with a large panel of tools, from linear aerodynamic (Vortex Lattice Methods) to CFD. This work confirms that an increase in fidelity level enables the dynamic derivatives to be calculated more accurately. Linear aerodynamics tools are shown to give satisfactory results but are very sensitive to the geometry/mesh input data. Although all the quasi-steady CFD approaches give comparable results (robustness) for steady dynamic derivatives, they do not allow the prediction of unsteady components for the dynamic derivatives (angular derivatives with respect to time): this can be done with either a fully unsteady approach i.e. with a time-marching scheme or with frequency domain solvers, both of which provide comparable results for the DLR-F12 test case. As far as the canard configuration is concerned, strong limitations for the linear aerodynamic tools are observed. A key aspect of this work are the acceleration techniques developed for CFD methods, which allow the computational time to be dramatically reduced while providing comparable results.     

Improvement of Baldwin-Lomax turbulence model for supersonic complex flows

Entropy represents the dissipation rate of energy. Through direct numerical simulation (DNS) of supersonic compression ramp flow, we find the value of entropy is monotonously decreasing along the wall-normal direction no matter in the attached or the separated region. Based on this feature, a new version of Baldwin-Lomax turbulence model (BL-entropy) is proposed in this paper. The supersonic compression ramp and cavity-ramp flows in which the original Baldwin-Lomax model fails to get convergent solutions are chosen to evaluate the performance of this model. Results from one-equation Spalart-Allmaras model (SA) and two-equation Wilcox k-x model are also included to compare with available experimental and DNS data. It is shown that BLentropy could conquer the essential deficiency of the original version by providing a more physically meaningful length scale in the complex flows. Moreover, this method is simple, computationally efficient and general, making it applicable to other models related with the supersonic boundary layer.     

Gamma-Theta转捩模型在绕翼型流动问题中的应用

在非结构RANS求解器上实现了完全基于流场当地变量和转捩经验关系式的γ-Reθ转捩模型,并利用该模型对S809和NLF0416两种翼型在中等迎角以及大迎角下的低湍流度绕流问题进行了计算.计算结果表明该模型可以准确地预测自然转捩、分离泡转捩和再层流化等各种转捩现象,中等迎角下预测的转捩发生位置和升阻力系数与实验吻合较好,大迎角下该模型也捕捉到了前缘分离泡.同时计算结果也表明该模型预测结果受物面流向网格密度和对流项数值离散格式影响较大,计算时须加以注意.     

高超声速进气道边界层强制转捩试验

在FL-31高超声速风洞分别开展了进气道的自然转捩和强制转捩风洞试验,试验Ma数为5、6和7,迎角为1°。通过红外热图得到了壁面的热流分布,从中得到了转捩区域。强制转捩装置为钻石型涡流发生器。随着涡流发生器高度的增加,强制转捩区域逐渐前移,得到了涡流发生器的有效高度,实现了强制转捩的目的。     

高超声速数值模拟平台转捩模型的标定

基于CARDC的高超声速流动数值模拟软件平台Chant-2.0,以典型低速平板转捩算例为参考,对γ-Reθ转捩模型的经验关系式进行了标定,并且对压力梯度函数进行了高马赫数修正,在高超平板和尖锥的转捩算例中进行了初步检验,计算结果表明:在高超计算平台上标定的转捩模型,较好地模拟了低速平板流动的转捩起始位置和转捩区长度,经过高马赫数修正后在高超流动转捩模拟中表现出较大的潜力。     

后掠机翼人工转捩最佳粗糙带高度数值预测

介绍了基于当地变量的γ-Re_θ转捩模型,并将该模型应用到后掠机翼的转捩预测和人工转捩最佳粗糙带高度以及人工转捩技术能够模拟的大气飞行雷诺数的确定中。为检验γ-Re_θ转捩模型对后掠机翼转捩的预测能力,对ONERA M6机翼和DLR-F4标模机翼进行了边界层转捩预测,采用结构化网格和有限体积法求解雷诺平均Navier-Stokes(RANS)方程,得到了机翼表面的摩擦阻力系数分布,从而可以得到相应的转捩位置,预测得到的转捩位置与试验结果比较吻合,说明该模型对后掠机翼转捩预测是可信的。最后在DLR-F4标模机翼上表面固定了粗糙带,通过相同的方法得到了转捩位置,从而确定了马赫数为0.785、雷诺数为3.0×10⁶时最佳粗糙带高度为0.11 mm;通过不断增大雷诺数使自由转捩位置不断向前缘移动,验证了人工转捩对大气飞行雷诺数的模拟能力。结果表明,在最佳粗糙带高度为0.11 mm下,可以实现对大气飞行高雷诺数的模拟。     

Recent experience with different methods of drag prediction

During the recent past the process of engineering design has changed entirely because of rapid developments in computational simulations. In aerodynamic design, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods are slowly superseding empirical methods and design engineers are spending more and more time applying CFD tools to analyze and predict the aerodynamic characteristics of vehicles. The purpose of this paper is to review recent experiences in CFD-based drag prediction with an emphasis on flow solutions governed by the Euler and Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations. For these types of flow solutions, various drag analysis methodologies are outlined and applied to determine the drag of components of as well as whole-body airplanes, helicopters, and ground-based vehicles at subsonic and transonic flow conditions. The review demonstrates that although significant progress has been made, CFD-based drag prediction still faces a number of hurdles that must be dealt with before it will become more widely accepted.     

Recent advances in physical understanding and quantitative prediction of impinging-jet dynamics and atomization

Impinging-jet injectors are widely used in liquid propulsion applications, since their simple configuration provides reliable and efficient atomization. The flowfield involves a series of complicated spatio-temporal evolutions. Much effort has been directed toward understanding the underlying physics and developing quantitative predictions of impinging-jet atomization. This paper summarizes the recent advances in this direction, including state-of-the-art theoretical, experimental, and numerical studies, along with representative results. Finally, concluding remarks address remaining challenges and highlight modeling capabilities of high-fidelity simulations.