Cylindrical heterogeneous detonation waves

Further experimental studies of blast wave initiated cylindrical heterogeneous (liquid fuel drops, gas oxidizer) detonation waves are described. A pie-shaped shock tube, used for these studies, was altered in certain ways so as to improve the modeling of cylindrical waves. These modifications, along with some operational aspects, are briefly discussed. The breech of the facility, where the blast wave is generated by an explosive, became distorted with usage. Results are presented which show that lower detonation velocities are realized with the damaged breech (other conditions being the same). A photographic and pressure switch wave time of arrival study was made to ascertain the wave shape. Photographs are shown which show that the waves, blast as well as detonation, are close to cylindrical. However, in some cases there is appreciable distortion of the wave front by debris ahead of the wave. Presumably this debris comes from the blasting cap used to ignite the condensed explosive. A series of experiments was conducted using kerosene drops of 388 μm diameter dispersed in air through use of a large number of hypodermic needles. Radial fuel void regions were established by cutting off the fuel flow to a number of needles. Preliminary results relating to the effect of the size of the cloud gap on detonation velocity, quenching, and the initiator energy levels required for detonation are discussed.     

Liquid rocket engines for large thrust: Present and future

The possibility of an increase in economy and rise in efficiency of liquid-propellant rocket engines of launch vehicles and flight vehicles is considered. The characteristics of liquid-propellant rocket engines, made in the Soviet Union, U.S.A., France, Japan, China and other countries, and working on the following fuels: O₂, +H₂, O₂ + kerosene, N₂O₄ + H₂N-N(CH₃)₂, HNO₃ + dimethylhydrazine, etc. are recalled. Ways of further improvement of liquid-propellant rocket engines are outlined and the problems, arising during their realization, are discussed.     

连续旋转爆轰发动机气液两相爆轰波传播特性二维数值研究

为了研究液体燃料连续旋转爆轰发动机(Continuous Rotating Detonation Engine,CRDE)中爆轰波形成与传播过程,采用二维CE/SE方法,对汽油、富氧空气两相连续旋转爆轰发动机爆轰过程进行数值模拟,分析了连续旋转爆轰发动机气液两相爆轰流场和爆轰波结构及入口和出口处的流场变化规律,揭示了CRDE自持传播机理。计算结果表明,燃料以时段阶梯填充方式来起爆旋转爆轰,可快速有效地形成单方向稳定传播的爆轰波;在周向方向上出口处的流场间断面要延后于入口处的间断面,出口流场间断面主要是由斜激波和接触间断面造成的,而入口流场间断面是由爆轰波引起的。通过对气液两相CRDE的二维数值模拟,可更好地了解液体燃料CRDE的工作过程,为液体燃料CRDE研究提供指导。     

Fluid mechanics of pulse detonation thrusters

The advantages of constant volume combustion cycle as compared to constant pressure combustion in terms of thermodynamic efficiency have focused the researches of advanced propulsion on detonation engines. The paper gives coverage of efforts undertaken during past decades in adjusting detonations for propulsion applications, and highlights new challenges in studying fluid flow dynamics relevant to onset of detonation.     

Some technical aspects of gaseous detonation

This paper briefly describes two attempts to utilize detonative combustion processes to MHD conversion of thermal energy of fuel to electrical energy and bonding of atmospheric nitrogen. For this purpose a continuous impulse detonation chamber with a frequency up to 200 cps was constructed. Using methane-oxygen-nitrogen mixtures the chamber was maintained in stable operation for several hundred hours. Oil was also employed as fuel.Estimates based on experimental data showed that up to 2% of chemical energy of the fuel may be converted into electrical energy. The use of an accelerating nozzle may improve this result.The concentration of nitrogen oxide in combustion products of the detonation wave was higher by 14% than that expected under usual combustion conditions.The advantages of this type of apparatus are: absence of compressors for fuel and oxidant, impulse current generation, low temperatures of chamber walls, and operation over a large range of operating conditions.Problems associated with the effect of the magnetic field on the propagation of the detonation wave are discussed and the possibility of applying the Zeldovich theory to the case of MHD interaction is described. It is shown that the detonation velocity may either increase or decrease depending on the relative orientation of the direction of magnetic field with respect to the detonation wave.     

A new generation of space engines

A primary method of launching future spacecraft will be the Space Transportation System (STS). Studies have identified minimum length stages capable of lifting heavy and deployed payloads from the STS low-Earth orbit to geosynchronous Earth orbit using storage or cryogenic propulsion systems.

Aerojet TechSystems is presently developing two engines suitable for these stages, a storable engine in the few thousand pound thrust range, and a cryogenic engine with a thrust of only a few hundred pounds. The stringent life and performance requirements of these engines offer new technical challenges which can only be met through the consequent employment of novel materials and processes for the storable engine and through innovative design concepts for the cryogenic engine. The storable engine breadboard testing has been accomplished, and the flightweight development program will be complete by the end of this decade. A qualified engine is anticipated for service in the early 1990 time frame. The low thrust cryogenic engine lags this storable engine by approximately three years in development and availability.

This paper discusses the technical issues, their solutions, and the development status of these two engines.     

Closed theoretical model of a detonation cell

A model for an elementary detonation cell is postulated. On its basis, the geometry of the cell pattern and the kinematics of the wave fronts forming the cells are evaluated. The cell size is determined assuming that the induction time obeys an Arrhenius relationship with temperature. Thus, it is shown that some kinetic parameters of the mixture, such as the activation energy, can be deduced from the cell size. It is also demonstrated that by combining the cell model with the experimental data on the propagation of the detonation wave in a rapidly expanding channel, the initiation energy for a cylindrical detonation wave can be estimated.     

Supercomputer modeling of hydrogen combustion in rocket engines

Hydrogen being an ecological fuel is very attractive now for rocket engines designers. However, peculiarities of hydrogen combustion kinetics, the presence of zones of inverse dependence of reaction rate on pressure, etc. prevents from using hydrogen engines in all stages not being supported by other types of engines, which often brings the ecological gains back to zero from using hydrogen. Computer aided design of new effective and clean hydrogen engines needs mathematical tools for supercomputer modeling of hydrogen–oxygen components mixing and combustion in rocket engines.The paper presents the results of developing verification and validation of mathematical model making it possible to simulate unsteady processes of ignition and combustion in rocket engines.     

固液混合火箭发动机缩尺效应研究

全尺寸固液混合火箭发动机试验耗费大,通常采用缩比发动机进行试验。为确保缩比试验代替全尺寸试验的准确性和有效性,对固液混合火箭发动机进行了相似性理论研究。结果表明当缩尺发动机与全尺寸发动机几何相似、采用相同的氧化剂和燃料组合,且氧化剂流率与药柱内径比值相同时,理论上缩比试验一定程度上能够反映全尺寸发动机的特性。     

Research on hypersonic aircraft using pre-cooled turbojet engines

Systems analysis of a Mach 5 class hypersonic aircraft is performed. The aircraft can fly across the Pacific Ocean in 2 h. A multidisciplinary optimization program for aerodynamics, structure, propulsion, and trajectory is used in the analysis. The result of each element model is improved using higher accuracy analysis tools. The aerodynamic performance of the hypersonic aircraft is examined through hypersonic wind tunnel tests. A thermal management system based on the data of the wind tunnel tests is proposed. A pre-cooled turbojet engine is adopted as the propulsion system for the hypersonic aircraft. The engine can be operated continuously from take-off to Mach 5. This engine uses a pre-cooling cycle using cryogenic liquid hydrogen. The high temperature inlet air of hypersonic flight would be cooled by the same liquid hydrogen used as fuel. The engine is tested under sea level static conditions. The engine is installed on a flight test vehicle. Both liquid hydrogen fuel and gaseous hydrogen fuel are supplied to the engine from a tank and cylinders installed within the vehicle. The designed operation of major components of the engine is confirmed. A large amount of liquid hydrogen is supplied to the pre-cooler in order to make its performance sufficient for Mach 5 flight. Thus, fuel rich combustion is adopted at the afterburner. The experiments are carried out under the conditions that the engine is mounted upon an experimental airframe with both set up either horizontally or vertically. As a result, the operating procedure of the pre-cooled turbojet engine is demonstrated.     

RBCC和TBCC组合发动机在RLV上的应用

论述了吸气式组合发动机在新一代可重复使用运载器上的使用现状,分析了各种组合方案的优势和特点,着重介绍了RBCC、TBCC的应用对飞行器总体性能的影响,并提出了两种较优的飞行器组合结构方案。     

Non-stationary heat behaviour of liquid propellant rocket engines

The transient behaviour of the liquid propellant rocket engine is accompanied by non-stationary heat processes in the combustion chamber, the cooling jacket, and the injector. Based on the analysis of the phenomena, which take place in the liquid propellant rocket engine after cut-off command, the major stages of the curve of the rocket thrust drop were defined. A mathematical model of heat processes is suggested, which includes the calculation of transient heat transfer in the chamber, and the detection of boiling-up of the liquid fuel components in the cooling jacket and in the injector. The determination of the law of the rocket thrust drop and a calculation of the after-effect impulse (AEI) are presented. The calculated transient heat flux the combustion chamber and the transient wall temperatures were compared with experimental data, which were received during starting, and with the impulsive behaviour of the liquid propellant rocket engine.     

火箭发动机轴承摇摆试验技术

大推力火箭发动机摇摆过程中,摇摆轴承使用环境与轴承自身设计指标不同,在承受较大径向载荷的同时,还要承受一定的轴承载荷,并实现低速往复摆动。为获得轴承的静态承载能力摩擦系数及疲劳寿命等关键参数,设计了一种新的轴承试验系统,模拟轴承在发动机不同工作状态下的安装边界和受载形式。通过试验获得了相应的数据,试验结果表明:轴承静态...     

The generation of detonation by coalescing spherical deflagration waves

The generation of a spherical detonation was verified experimentally by two coalescing deflagration waves. Numerical results of treating the three different types of deflagration of detonation transition with Hugoniot curves are in full agreement with our experimental observations.     

超声速斜爆震发动机起爆过程研究综述

对超声速斜爆震发动机的起爆方式进行了比较分析,对起爆发展和稳定特性的研究历程和发展现状进行了综述,对相关的研究方法和技术进行了概括,提出了利用先进光学测量技术,结合激光诱导荧光技术对超声速斜爆震发动机起爆过程进行实验研究的设想。     

Pharmacological approaches

The use of drugs as countermeasures in the United States and Russian space programs is examined. Pharmacological tools for short and extended space flights are reviewed. Medications flown on the Shuttle are listed. Considerations for the use of pharmacological countermeasures include pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, drug interactions, therapeutic interventions, space motion sickness, the musculoskeletal system, radiation protection, space flight anemia, and cardiovascular disorders.     

A study of detonation in methane/air clouds

In the present paper, we study the problem of detonation in unconfined, gaseous mixtures of methane/oxygen/nitrogen. A numerical simulation approach is employed in which we use a one-dimensional (spherical symmetry), time-dependent computer model to simulate the coupled compressible fluid dynamics-chemical kinetics processes which occur upon direct initiation of detonation. We establish the magnitude of explosive yield of tetryl required to initiate detonation in mixtures of CH₄ + 2O₂ with varying degrees of nitrogen dilution, up to and including stoichiometric . The numerical simulations illustrate the features of direct initiation observed in many experimental investigations, e.g. shock-wave breakaway followed by detonation reestablishment via a quasi-steady, oscillatory flow regime which occurs before the establishment of a steadily propagating spherical detonation. Our results compare well with recent experimental data obtained by Bull et al. (1976) over the range of tetryl masses studied by them. We find that tetryl explosive masses in excess of 10⁷ grams would be required to initiate detonation in an unconfined, stoichiometric mixture.     

Initiation of spherical detonation in hydrocarbon/air mixtures

Spherical detonations have been initiated by solid explosive (Tetryl) charges in well-mixed stoicheiometric air mixtures with each of the hydrocarbons, ethane, propane, n-butane, isobutane and ethylene at atmospheric pressure. Prior to initiation, the gases were contained in plastic bags; total gas volume and available path length were up to 1.6 m³ and 2 m, respectively. The detonations were shown to be self-sustained by continuous measurement of detonation velocity using X-band microwave interferometry. Measured detonation velocities were in all cases close to calculated C-J values.In a few experiments close to the limits of detonability, velocity and blast pressure/time records indicated that the propagating wave system is sometimes irregular. The irregularity that occurs just after initiation is characterised by a reaction front velocity very much lower than the constant detonation velocity, but subsequently attaining the latter by an acceleration process. These observations indicate the existence of a dissociated phase in which shock and reaction fronts may no longer be coupled.Because similar experimental conditions were used throughout, it was possible to establish the relative susceptibilities of the various fuel gases to detonation. Comparison is made with the Zeldovich criterion and a detonation kernel theory of Lee.     

火箭发动机喷雾均匀性数值分析

喷雾均匀性对火箭发动机燃烧室内掺混效率和燃烧强度有着重要影响。以火箭发动机为对象,研究了喷雾均匀性。为了对雾化场均匀性给出定量指标,对燃烧室横截面内周向和径向方向上进行区域划分,定义了能定量衡量雾化场均匀性的参数。利用商业软件对火箭发动机燃烧室内喷雾场进行了数值模拟,结果表明,合理调整喷嘴喷射角度,能够有效改善喷雾均匀性。