Comptel measurements of the omnidirectional high-energy neutron flux in near-earth orbit

On four occasions, twice in 1991 (near solar maximum) and twice in 1994 (near solar minimum), one COMPTEL D1 detector module was used as an omnidirectional detector to measure the high-energy (>12.8 MeV) neutron flux near an altitude of 450 km. The Dl modules are cylindrical, with radius 13.8 cm and depth 8 cm, and are filled with liquid scintillator (NE213A). The combined flux measurements can be fit reasonably well by a product of the Mt. Washington neutron monitor rate, a linear function in the spacecraft geocenter zenith angle, and an exponential function of the vertical geomagnetic cutoff rigidity in which the coefficient of the rigidity is a linear function of the neutron monitor rate. When pointed at the nadir, the flux is consistent with that expected from the atmospheric neutron albedo alone. When pointed at the zenith the flux is reduced by a factor of about 0.54. Thus the production of secondary neutrons in the massive (16000 kg) Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory spacecraft is negligible. Rather, the mass of the spacecraft provides shielding from the earth albedo.     

Cosmic ray exposure factors for Shuttle altitudes derived from calculated cut-off rigidities.

The allowed cosmic radiation flux accessible to an earth-orbiting spacecraft is a complex function of the satellite position and the geomagnetic cutoff characteristics at each zenith and azimuth angle at each position. We have determined cosmic ray exposure factors for the galactic cosmic ray spectrum for typical shuttle altitudes and inclinations up to 50 degrees. We have utilized d world grid of trajectory-derived cutoff rigidity calculations at 400 km altitude to determine geomagnetic transmission functions that permit a simple and direct calculation of the allowed cosmic ray spectrum to a 400 km satellite orbit. If the interplanetary cosmic ray spectrum is multiplied by the orbit-averaged geomagnetic transmission function the result is the allowed cosmic ray spectrum at the spacecraft.     

A model of radiation conditions during spacecraft flights in the interplanetary space and in the Earth's magnetosphere.

Based on the available measurement data, simulations of radiation conditions during spacecraft flights in the interplanetary space and in the Earth's and Jupiter's radiation belts has been carried out. The > or = 10 MeV and > or = 30 MeV solar flare proton fluence forecast has been proposed for Cycle 22. Radiation conditions due to both magnetospheric electrons and protons and to solar flare protons, magnetic rigidity cutoff being taken into account, have been evaluated on spacecraft trajectories in the Earth's and Jupiter's magnetospheres.     

Effective non-vertical and apparent cutoff rigidities for a cosmic ray latitude survey from Antarctica to Italy in minimum of solar activity

In this paper we will report the results of the computation of cutoff rigidities of vertical and non-vertical incident cosmic ray particles. Non-vertical effective cutoff rigidities have been computed by tracing particle trajectories through the “real” geomagnetic magnetic field comprising the International Geomagnetic Reference Field model (IGRF95, IAGA Division 5 Working Group 8, 1996: Sabaka, T.J., Langel, R.A., Baldwin, R.T., Conrad, J.A. The geomagnetic field, 1900–1995, including the large scale fields from magnetospheric sources and NASA candidate models for the 1995 IGRF revision. J. Geomag. Geoelect. 49, 157–206, 1997.) and the Tsyganenko [Tsyganenko, N.A. A magnetospheric magnetic field model with a warped tail current sheet. Planet. Space Sci. 37, 5–20, 1989.] magnetosphere model. The computation have been done for the backward route (from Antarctica to Italy) of the Italian Antarctic ship survey 1996–1997, for geographic points corresponding to the daily average coordinates of the ship; for zenith angles 15°, 30°, 45° and 60°, and azimuth angles from 0° to 360° in steps of 45°. By means of the obtained non-vertical cutoffs the apparent cutoff rigidities have been calculated. The information on integral multiplicities of secondary neutrons detected by the neutron monitor in dependence of the zenith angle of incoming primary cosmic ray particles have also been used. This information is based on the theoretical calculations of meson-nuclear cascades of primary protons with different rigidities arriving to the Earth’s atmosphere at the zenith angles of 0°, 15°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 75°. The difference between the computed apparent and vertical cutoff rigidities reaches ∼1 GV at rigidities >7–8 GV. At rigidities of 10–16 GV, the difference between the apparent and vertical cutoff rigidities is larger than that obtained earlier by Clem et al. [Clem, J.M., Bieber, J.W., Duldig, M., Evenson, P., Hall, D., Humble, J.E. Contribution of obliquely incident particles to neutron monitor counting rate. J. Geophys. Res. 102, 26919–26926, 1997.] and Dorman et al. [Dorman, L.I., Villoresi, G., Iucci, N., Parisi, M., Tyasto, M.I., Danilova, O.A., Ptitsyna, N.G. Cosmic ray survey to Antarctica and coupling functions for neutron component near solar minimum (1996–1997), 3. Geomagnetic effects and coupling functions. J. Geophys. Res. 105, 21047–21056, 2000.].     

Recent results form measurements of the energy spectrum of cosmic-ray induced neutrons aboard an ER-2 airplane and on the ground.

Crews of future high-altitude commercial aircraft may be significantly exposed to atmospheric cosmic radiation from galactic cosmic rays (GCR). To help determine such exposures, the Atmospheric Ionizing Radiation Project, an international collaboration of 15 laboratories, made simultaneous radiation measurements with 14 instruments on a NASA ER-2 high-altitude aircraft. The primary instrument was a sensitive extended-energy multisphere neutron spectrometer, which was also used to make measurements on the ground. Its detector responses were calculated for neutrons and charged hadrons at energies up to 100 GeV using the radiation transport code MCNPX. We have now recalculated the detector responses including the effects of the airplane structure. We are also using new FLUKA calculations of GCR-induced hadron spectra in the atmosphere to correct for spectrometer counts produced by charged hadrons. Neutron spectra are unfolded from the corrected measured count rates using the MAXED code. Results for the measured cosmic-ray neutron spectrum (thermal to >10 GeV), total neutron fluence rate, and neutron dose equivalent and effective dose rates, and their dependence on altitude and geomagnetic cutoff generally agree well with results from recent calculations of GCR-induced neutron spectra.     

Modeling solar proton access to geostationary spacecraft with geomagnetic cutoffs

Solar energetic particle (SEP) cutoffs at geosynchronous orbit are sensitive to moderate geomagnetic activity and undergo daily variations due to the day–night asymmetry of the magnetosphere. At geosynchronous orbit, cutoff rigidity also has a large directional dependence, with the highest cutoff rigidity corresponding to ions arriving from magnetic east and lowest cutoff rigidity corresponding to ions incident from the west. Consequently, during geomagnetically quiet periods, the SEP flux observed by an eastward facing particle detector is significantly lower than observed by a westward facing particle detector. During geomagnetically disturbed periods the cutoff is suppressed allowing SEPs access well inside of geosynchronous, so that the east–west SEP flux ratio approaches unity. Variations in the east–west SEP flux ratio observed by GOES Energetic Particle Sensors (EPS) have recently been reported by Rodriguez et al. (2010). In NOAA’s operational processing of EPS count rates into differential fluxes, the differential flux is treated as isotropic and flat over the energy width of the channel. To compare modeled SEP flux with GOES EPS observations, the anisotropy of the flux over the EPS energy range and field of view must be taken into account. A technique for making direct comparisons between GOES EPS observations and SEP flux modeled using numerically computed geomagnetic cutoffs is presented. Initial results from a comparison between modeled and observed flux during the 6–11 December 2006 SEP event are also presented. The modeled cutoffs reproduce the observed flux variations well but are in general too high.     

SEP events and multi-spacecraft observations: Constraints on theory

Fifteen solar energetic particle (SEP) events have been analyzed using proton flux data recorded by the Helios 1, Helios 2, and IMP 8 spacecraft in the energy range ∼4–40 MeV during 1974–1982. For each of the events at least two of the spacecraft have their nominal magnetic footpoint within 20° in heliocentric longitude from each other. The SEP events are sub-grouped as a function of their heliocentric longitudinal separation and heliocentric radial distance from the SEP associated solar flare and several case studies are presented in this paper. Main results concerning their usage in estimating the SEP radial dependence are given. Moreover, we investigate the behavior of the third not connected spacecraft in order to study the dependence of the proton flux as a function of flare location. It is found that the contribution of the longitudinal gradient in determining variations in the SEP proton flux is particularly relevant for spacecraft having their magnetic connection footpoint separated from the flare between 30° and 50°.     

Possible influence of cosmic rays on climate through thunderstorm clouds

With decreasing of cosmic ray (CR) intensity caused by increasing of solar activity (SA) or in some short periods of Forbush-decreases, the intensity of secondary CR relativistic electrons decreases and the probability of formation of thunderstorm clouds and discharges between clouds or between clouds and ground is also expected to decrease. This will influence on weather and climate. In this case is very important to have more detail information on the atmospheric electric field distribution in the atmosphere, additional to information what gave now electric field sensors (EFS) only in about one point near the ground. We show that CR not only influenced on atmospheric electric field phenomenon, but can give practically continuous information on the atmospheric electric field distribution in the atmosphere. We extend our theory of CR atmospheric electric field effect on electron–photon, muon and neutron component including different multiplicities. We take into account that about 0.07 of neutron monitor counting rate caused by negative soft muons captured by lead nucleons and formed mesoatoms with generation of several MeV energy neutrons from lead. In this case the neutron monitor or neutron super-monitor works as analyzer that detects muons of only one, negative sign. It is very important because the atmospheric electric field effect have opposite signs for positive and negative muons that main part of this effect in the muon telescope or in ionization chamber is compensated and we can observe only small part of total effect of one sign muons. On the basis of our general theory of CR atmospheric electric field effects with taking into account of negative soft muon acceleration and deceleration in the Earth atmosphere (in dependence of direction and intensity of electric field) we discuss the possibility of existing this effect in CR neutron monitor counting rate and in different multiplicities and calculate the expected effects in dependence of atmospheric electric field distribution in the atmosphere. We show that the comparison of observed effects with theoretically expected will give important information on the value of atmospheric electric field and its distribution in the atmosphere. We consider also the possible influence of secondary relativistic electrons of CR and relativistic electrons precipitated from the Earth’s radiation belts on thunderstorms and lightnings, and through this – on climate change.     

利用质子强度变化对太阳质子事件进行短期预报方法初步研究

采用GOSE-10卫星4～9 MeV(P2),9～15 MeV(P3),15～40 MeV(P4),40～80 MeV(P5)能段上的质子通量数据,结合质子能谱,对太阳质子事件发生前各能谱参数的变化特征进行分析,详细介绍利用能谱参数的变化特征及能量E>10 MeV的质子通量数据对太阳质子事件进行预报的新方法,并运用这种方法对2002-2006年期间太阳质子事件进行了预报.预报结果显示,预报提前量最多达到100 h以上,对质子事件的报准率达97.5%,预报方法具备一定的有效性和实用性.     

Diffuse and atmospheric photon fluxes measured with a time of flight telescope

A simple gamma ray telescope based on a time of flight triggering device has been constructed to measure medium energy photons (4–50 MeV). This instrument has been flown twice aboard stratospheric balloons. The results of these flights, used to separate the cosmic diffuse gamma-radiation from the atmospheric flux, using the growth curves, are presented.     

The space-developed dynamic vertical cutoff rigidity model and its applicability to aircraft radiation dose.

We have developed a dynamic geomagnetic vertical cutoff rigidity model that predicts the energetic charged particle transmission through the magnetosphere. Initially developed for space applications, we demonstrate the applicability of this library of cutoff rigidity models for computing aircraft radiation dose. The world grids of vertical cutoff rigidities were obtained by particle trajectory tracing in a magnetospheric model. This reference set of world grids of vertical cutoff rigidities calculated for satellite altitudes covers all magnetic activity levels from super quiet to extremely disturbed (i.e., Kp indices ranging from 0 to 9+) for every three hours in universal time. We utilize the McIlwain "L" parameter as the basis of the interpolation technique to reduce these initial satellite altitude vertical cutoff rigidities to cutoff rigidity values at aircraft altitudes.     

A space radiation shielding model of the Martian radiation environment experiment (MARIE)

The 2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft was launched towards Mars on April 7, 2001. Onboard the spacecraft is the Martian radiation environment experiment (MARIE), which is designed to measure the background radiation environment due to galactic cosmic rays (GCR) and solar protons in the 20–500 MeV/n energy range. We present an approach for developing a space radiation-shielding model of the spacecraft that includes the MARIE instrument in the current mapping phase orientation. A discussion is presented describing the development and methodology used to construct the shielding model. For a given GCR model environment, using the current MARIE shielding model and the high-energy particle transport codes, dose rate values are compared with MARIE measurements during the early mapping phase in Mars orbit. The results show good agreement between the model calculations and the MARIE measurements as presented for the March 2002 dataset.     

Characteristics of cosmic ray cutoffs for a satellite orbiting at 400 km; The effect of the solid earth

Studies of galactic cosmic ray intensity and composition by means of earth orbiting space vehicles often rely on the earth's magnetic field as a momentum analyzer or threshold energy indicator. We have determined, by the trajectory-tracing process, cosmic ray cutoff characteristics for a satellite at 400 km altitude. These calculations indicate that cosmic rays have direct access to the satellite from the magnetic west down to angles of 135° from the zenith. For spacecraft observations it is necessary to employ additional definitions of cutoff beyond the classical Stormer definition because there are regions with allowed orbits where the cutoff, in the classical sense, does not exist.     

Angular distributions of energetic charged particles observed with HELIOS-1 and -2 between 0.3 amd 1 AU and their relevance to manned interplanetary space missions.

The University of Kiel Cosmic Ray Instrument on board the solar probes HELIOS-1 and -2 measured angular distributions of electrons, protons, and heavier nuclei between 0.3 and 1 AU over one complete solar cycle between 1974 and 1986. Anisotropies are observed mainly during the rising phase of solar particle events or close to the passage of certain interplanetary shocks. The anisotropies are presented as proton data of energies between 27 and 37 MeV. The dependence of the anisotropies on particle energy and distance from the sun is provided based on diffusive propagation in interplanetary space. Strong anisotropies could provide a chance of efficient shielding of the passenger compartment by moving heavier parts of the spacecraft structure into the direction of the highest flux. A reduction of the total radiation dose by less than a factor of 2 might be achievable, however, selection of quiet times for the mission reduces the radiation hazard much more.     

Measurement of gamma-ray line intensities from the earth's atmosphere

We report measurements of gamma ray lines from the Earth's atmosphere observed by the gamma ray spectrometer on the Solar Maximum Mission satellite. The data are summed over 3.5 years and have excellent statistical accuracy. 20 line features within the range 0.3 to 8 MeV have been observed. Line intensities are consistent with models attributing them to neutron absorption by nitrogen and oxygen. The relative intensity of scattered radiation from the 0.511 MeV line suggests production at an average atmospheric depth of 21 g/cm². These data allow a detailed comparison of gamma ray production models with experiment in a medium with known composition, geometry, and irradiation level and therefore serve as a good test subject for models of astrophysical gamma ray line sources.     

质子地磁垂直截止刚度在2004年11月7-8日两个时刻处的数值模拟

利用单粒子轨道理论, 在T04和IGRF2000磁场模式建立的磁层模型基础上, 应用四阶龙格库塔方法, 模拟计算宇宙线带电质子在地球磁层中的运动以及沿天顶方向入射到达地球磁场内的某一特定位置, 得到了距地球表面450km高度处全球质子垂直截止刚度在2004年11月7-8日中两个时刻的计算值. 根据计算得到的684个不同位置处的截止刚度值, 分析了同一时刻地磁垂直截止刚度随磁纬和磁经的变化. 与此同时, 模拟计算了相同时刻下磁纬为30°, 磁经为0°, 45°, 90°, 135°, 180°, 225°, 270°, 315°处, 地磁有效垂直截止刚度随高度的变化情况. 结果表明, 在磁纬30°处, 其质子有效垂直截止刚度随距离地心高度的变化沿向阳处向磁尾处方向, 变化越来越缓慢.     

Geomagnetic cutoffs: a review for space dosimetry applications.

The earth's magnetic field acts as a shield against charged particle radiation from interplanetary space, technically described as the geomagnetic cutoff. The cutoff rigidity problem (except for the dipole special case) has "no solution in closed form". The dipole case yields the Stormer equation which has been repeatedly applied to the earth in hopes of providing useful approximations of cutoff rigidities. Unfortunately the earth's magnetic field has significant deviations from dipole geometry, and the Stormer cutoffs are not adequate for most applications. By application of massive digital computer power it is possible to determine realistic geomagnetic cutoffs derived from high order simulation of the geomagnetic field. Using this technique, "world-grids" of directional cutoffs for the earth's surface and for a limited number of satellite altitudes have been derived. However, this approach is so expensive and time consuming it is impractical for most spacecraft orbits, and approximations must be used. The world grids of cutoff rigidities are extensively used as lookup tables, normalization points and interpolation aids to estimate the effective geomagnetic cutoff rigidity of a specific location in space. We review the various options for estimating the cutoff rigidity for earth-orbiting satellites.     

A method for operative calculation of charged particle penetration into the LEO

We develop a simple method for calculating the effective vertical cutoff rigidity of charged particles, taking into account the Kp-index and the local time, on the basis of generalization of the results of extensive trajectory calculations for trial particles moving in the geomagnetic field. The vertical cutoff rigidities, calculated by the Tsyganenko-89 model, are presented as an International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF) model calculated and thereafter corrected in accordance with the geomagnetic disturbance and local time conditions. The fits from the proposed method agree with the results of cutoff rigidity measurements carried out by satellites. The method is intended for applications using cutoff calculations, such as evaluating particle penetration of spatial boundaries, calculating magnetospheric transmissions for low-orbital spacecrafts flights and interpreting the results of orbital experiments.     

Flight safety implications of the extreme solar proton event of 23 February 1956

There is considerable speculation about the effects at aircraft altitudes resulting from extreme solar proton events. The ground level event (GLE) of 23 February 1956 (GLE 5), remains the largest solar proton event of the neutron monitor era in terms of its influence on count rates at monitors near sea level. During this GLE the count rate was increased by as much as 4760% (15-min average) at the Leeds monitor relative to the count rate from galactic cosmic radiation (GCR). Two modern models of the event cumulative solar proton spectrum for this event, a 6-parameter fit in energy and a 4-parameter Band fit in rigidity, are compared with 1-h of GCR at solar minimum. While effective doses calculated with CARI-7A for both models at low geomagnetic cutoff rigidities are indeed high when compared with GCR and can exceed recommended exposure limits, both GLE spectra exhibit a much stronger dependence on cutoff rigidity than GCR, and a larger fraction of the dose from neutrons. At locations with cutoff rigidities above 4.2 and 6.4?GV, respectively, the GLE effective doses are smaller than the GCR hourly dose. At locations with cutoff rigidities above about 4?GV, GCR was the dominant source of exposure in 10?h or less at all altitudes examined. This suggests that if a similar event occurs in the future, low- and mid-latitude flights at modern jet flight altitudes could be well-protected by Earth’s magnetic field.