Utility of proposed sensors for coastal engineering studies

The needs of coastal engineering are different from open ocean monitoring or fisheries potential monitoring. A high resolution of 20 meters is essential for identifying several processes that are taking place and influences the coast. A case of application of Landsat MSS to evaluate littoral process highlights the needs for improved spatial resolution. Nevertheless Landsat MSS data for 1981 and 1982 showed that the extent of accretion and erosion that has taken place during this period. Some problems to be addressed for marine remote sensing are mainly regarding the need for insitu data. These aspects are mentioned.     

Temporal analysis of suspended solid in Tokyo Bay by Landsat data

The amount of suspended solid (S.S.) discharged from Tokyo metropolitan area is estimated by use of multi-temporal Landsat data from 1979 to 1980. The method to estimate S.S. was verified with sea truth data which was observed with Landsat passes covering Tokyo Bay. The radiometric information is normalized against seasonal change of sun illuminations and atmospheric conditions. Path radiance estimation methods were discussed, because its effects are very sensitive to the estimation of S.S. concentration by Landsat MSS data. Temporal changes of S.S. distribution was also interpreted.     

Synthesis of geophysical data with space-acquired imagery: A review

Geophysical data obtained from ground and airborne platforms have been used in the development of regional geologic models for many years. Space-acquired data and imagery have a shorter but similar history of applications. All these data may be synthesized either manually or digitally. Manual synthesis methods consist of overlaying and comparing maps, whereas digital synthesis methods consist of computer storage and analysis of registered digital data sets.A data base may include topographic, geologic, soils, aeromagnetic, gravity, radiometric, electromagnetic and geochemical data, and Landsat, Seasat, and Heat Capacity Mapping Mission (HCMM) images, all of which can be evaluated individually or compared in multiple layers (overlays).Stereographic models, useful in the correlation and interpretation of geophysical data, have been created from Landsat images by using aeromagnetic, gravity, geochemical, or topographic values to offset Landsat pixels, thus introducing parallax and permitting stereoscopic viewing.Statistical correlation has been used to determine the applicability of specific data sets to the development of geologic or exploration models. Various arithmetic functions have proven useful in developing models from such data sets.     

Prospecting in glaciated terrain-integrating airborne and Landsat MSS

The effects of a glacially enriched zone of trace elements on soils and vegetation in the Thetford Mines area of Quebec were investigated using ground information plus digital Multispectral Scanner (MSS) data from airborne and Landsat sensors. The enriched zone was developed during the last glaciation when a southeastward flowing glacier eroded and dispersed an ultrabasic outcrop that had anomalous levels of Ni, Cu, Co, Cr, Mg and Fe.The dispersal train of enriched trace elements was detectable over an area at least 70 × 15 km ‘down-ice’ from the outcrop. In this zone total Ni concentrations in the soil ranged from background levels of 10 ppm to levels in excess of 1800 ppm. The dominant tree species, $\text{Abies}$$\text{balsamea}$ (balsam fir) and $\text{Picea glauca}$ (white spruce) reflect the soil anomaly with higher concentrations of trace elements in their tissue and lower concentrations of chlorophyll.An unsupervised enhancement of Landsat imagery showed that a tonal discontinuity was caused by a vegetation segregation related to the heavy metal enrichment soils. A detailed study based on Landsat MSS data was able to establish regional patterns of chlorophyll production by certain plant species closely related to the ultrabasic dispersal train. Multi-channel airborne MSS data confirmed the Landsat soil-plant patterns.     

Mapping recent agricultural developments in China from satellite data

Landsat data have been employed to study and map agricultural developments in three regions of China: 1) Pearl River delta; 2) Nen River basin; and 3) Xinjiang Autonomous Region. Manual interpretation procedures used in conjunction with multi-date Landsat images and collateral information permitted rice yields to be estimated for the Pearl River delta in 1978. A combination of manual and computer-assisted analyses of Landsat data of Northeast China revealed that more than 15,000 km² of agricultural land in a 184,500 km² study area had been reclaimed from rangeland and marshland. These analyses also indicated a shift in cropping practices, with the foodcrops wheat and corn replacing cash crops such as soybeans. In the arid west, Landsat image data provided valuable input to a geographic information system (GIS). It appears the GIS approach will prove useful for evaluating agricultural land potential in the remote areas of China.     

The use of Landsat imagery in structural studies of middle Morocco

Preliminary results of a tectonlinear study of Landsat MSS images in bands, 4, 5 and 7 covering Middle Morocco are presented. The relationships between lineaments and large-scale structural patterns are studied and compared with geological and ore deposits distribution data on the area.Middle Morocco in this article comprises parts of the Moroccan Meseta, Central and Eastern High Atlas and northeastern Anti-Atlas. Rocks of all ages, from Precambrian to Quaternary, are found, and the structural evolution of the area is due to Precambrian, Variscan and Alpine orogenies. Two main lineament sets are recognized on the satellite images. These are NE-SW and NW-SE. The NW-SE set of lineaments is prominent in older Precambrian and Paleozoic terranes, whereas the NE-SW set is observed both in the old inliers and massifs as well as in the younger mountain chains. The NE-SW lineaments therefore represent reactivated fractures that should have played an important role in the tectonics and sedimentary cycles of Middle Morocco. Other lineament trends are seen only in specific regions of the study area.Several major ore deposits follow lineament trends both in the basement and cover rocks. This is particularly true of endogenic deposits in the Anti-Atlas and in the Central Paleozoic massif.     

Hydrologic appraisal of rivers plan-form at confluence zone — A case study using Landsat MSS data

In river systems confluences and bifurcations are typical features whose effects are largely dependent on the specific characteristics of the rivers involved. The study makes an attempt to analyse the planform configuration at the confluence zone of the Wainganga and Khobragadi rivers in the central part of India. The data used are the Landsat MSS CCT data of date 17.12.1972 for scene 154-046 and black and white aerial photographs of November, 1969. Supervised method of classification using maximum likelihood classification method is employed. The study confirms that the discharge and sediment transport in the individual rivers constitute the dominating factors in the changes of planform geometry at a confluence. The usefulness of the Landsat MSS data and digital analysis techniques. for generating the necessary data inputs for the study is also validated.     

Estimating canopy cover in drylands with Landsat MSS data

The relationship between canopy cover and spectral characteristics of the corresponding areas was studied in a semi-arid savannah environment in Kordofan, The Sudan.The canopy cover was measured in 32 test plots through air photo interpretation. Achieved values were correlated with multitemporal Landsat MSS raw data and manipulated data.The highest correlation coefficients in general were obtained between crown cover and spectral data recorded during the dry season.The inverse relationship between amount of woody vegetation and nIR reflectance (MSS 6, MSS 7) was striking. This implied that other factors than a healthy foliage characterized the spectral responses.Destructive measurements of woody biomass were carried out to establish a relationship between woody wet weight and crown diameter for future biomass studies.     

Sensor data for forest policy information

NASA-Ames Research Center has investigated the role and performance capabilities of the Landsat Multi-Spectral Scanner (MSS) for forest policy analysis for the past four years in cooperation with the California Department of Forestry. A thorough series of studies, from a statewide land cover map to smaller, highly detailed studies including collateral data, have been conducted with a view to comprehensive forest policy needs. The strengths and limitations of MSS data have been evaluated. Some observations about the information needed from new satellite sensors such as the Thematic Mapper are discussed against this background.     

Landsat 8地表温度产品验证与分析

Landsat系列卫星热波段具有60~120m的空间分辨率，对各种环境监测起到了重要的作用。随着Landsat系列卫星在全球范围内地表温度（land surface temperature，LST）产品的发布，其验证工作也随之展开，然而对于长时间序列的精度验证工作仍然缺乏。以黑河流域中游为研究区，利用研究区内湿地站（SD）、戈壁站（GB）和大满超级站（CJZ）三个气象站的地面测量数据对2013-2016年清晰无云的31景Landsat 8地表温度产品进行了验证与分析，并将Landsat 8地表温度产品与广泛使用的普适性单通道算法（JMS）反演结果进行了对比。结果表明，Landsat 8地表温度产品与普适性单通道算法反演结果精度均较高，在各个站点处R2均优于0.949。基于所有站点分析，Landsat 8地表温度产品精度稍高于普适性单通道算法反演结果。     

Landsat thematic mapper studies of land cover spatial variability related to hydrology

The Landsat 4 and 5 Thematic Mapper (TM) provides increased spatial, spectral, and radiometric capability relative to the Multispectral Scanner (MSS). Visual inspection of TM imagery confirms this. Land cover detail is evident that would be of use in watershed management and planning activities. Specific studies have been conducted in Georgia, West Virginia, Michigan and Maryland to compare MSS and TM for urbanizing watersheds, wetlands, and floodplain mapping situations. These studies show that only modest improvements in classification accuracy (Anderson Level I/II) have been achieved using existing classification approaches. An attempt to identify the visibly apparent interstate highways and secondary and residential streets in TM data via conventional approaches failed due to an inability to derive separable spectral signatures. The basis for a non-parametric approach to classification is presented in which roads are identified by locating linear local minima in the greenness transformed dimension. Preliminary results indicate that such a method provides more reliable road locations than MSS or TM used singly.     

Enhanced Landsat and HCMM imagery for mineral exploration in contrasting areas of subtropical humid and semi-arid terrain

The role of multispectral and thermal imagery in mineral exploration is evaluated for two areas with favourable geological conditions within contrasting physical environments — one in the semi-arid low tree and shrub savannas of western Queensland and northern South Australia, the other in the humid subtropical forest zone of western Yunnan, China.For both areas Landsat imagery was used to identify structures and lithologies favourable for mineralization and locate ironstones/gossans indicative of mineralized bedrock. HCMM imagery was used alongside Landsat imagery to identify former and ephemeral drainage patterns important for the interpretation of geochemical data over covered ground in Australia. Interpretations were made of enhanced colour composites, outputs of MSS band ratios and colour rotated images generated from both NASA film products and CCTs. These were checked by field studies during which plant, soil and rock chip samples for subsequent metals analyses were collected from areas of anomalous vegetation and from barren ironstones. Some rock chip samples from Australia contained concentrations of copper or lead or small amounts of other metals. In China geobotanical anomalies over ironstones from which soil and rock samples yielded copper, lead, zinc, tin and silver suggest the presence of a major belt of potential multi-metal mineralization.     

Evaluation of MSS Landsat imagery over central Spain

Twenty four MSS Landsat I and II images have been selected to determine the most persistent lineaments within a given area in Central Spain. This area comprises four different geotectonic units: the Hercynian basement, an intermediate-type Alpine chain and two undeformed Tertiary basins. Lineaments appear to be well established in the Iberian Peninsula and their general pattern in good accordance with the faults system. Some of them correspond to simple or composite linears that extend over the entire peninsula, and must affect the whole crust. A generalized late-Hercynian fracture event is admitted to be the origin of these linears and their extension into the post-Hercynian areas is related to an Alpine reactivation. The main lineament directions are NS, N20, N70, N120 and N160. These trends seem to correlate well with arches and troughs inferred from gravimetric and aeromagnetic surveys carried out over both Tertiary basins.BPCG, Sn, W mineralizations within the Hercynian basement occur in relation to quartz and baryte dykes trending N20, N70, and N120.     

Integration of Landsat-8 and Sentinel-1 dataset to extract geological lineaments in complex formations of Tepal mountain area,Shahrood, north Iran

Recently, the detection and extraction of geological lineaments have become an essential analytical technique to find relationships between the characteristics and occurrence of hydrogeology, and tectonic studies. The use of remote sensing, with the progressive development of image enhancement techniques, provides an opportunity to produce more reliable and comprehensive lineament maps. In this paper, semi-automatic approach based on Landsat 8 and Sentinel 1 radar data is proposed for lineaments extraction and validation. The combined method of linear filtering and automatic line module ensures a high degree of accuracy resulting in a lineament map. Based on identified lineaments, Sentinel1 is more capable of detecting edges than Landsat8, but the primary orientation lineaments extracted from Landsat8 and Sentinel1 were different. So, by combining band6 of Landsat8, and VV and VH polarization of Sentinel1, the area lineaments were extracted with high accuracy. Rose diagram showed the extracted lineaments' orientation is in good compliance with the region's existing faults. Also, the formations' lineament length density has good consistent with the density of the faults in the geological map.     

Visual thematic mapping from Landsat and collateral data in support of mineral development

Over the past ten years, the authors and their associates have used Landsat images and collateral data to prepare visual thematic maps. The data are used in a projection-compositor (Procom) system that enlarges Landsat images and other data to scales as great as 1:15 000. Revisions of existing maps for simple themes (e.g. topographic maps) can be completed quickly, accurately and inexpensively. Complex themes, such as geological formations and structures, can be mapped through the optical merging of collateral data sets (e.g. Landsat, geophysics, geology) at a common scale. Such mapping has led to the recognition of a non-parallactic means of obtaining whole image stereo-models with large vertical exaggerations using Landsat images.     

Preliminary evaluation of the landsat-4 thematic mapper data for mineral exploration

Landsat-4 Thematic Mapper (TM) data recorded over an arid terrain were analyzed to determine the applicability of using of TM data for identifying and mapping hydrothermally altered, potentially mineralized rocks. Clays, micas, and other minerals bearing the OH anion in specific crystal lattice positions have absorption bands in the 2.2-μm region (TM channel 7, TM7) and commonly lack features in the 1.6-μm region (TM5). Channel ratios TM5/TM7, TM5/TM4, and TM3/TM1 were combined into a color-ratio-composite (CRC) image and used to distinguish hydrothermally altered rocks, unaltered rocks, and vegetation. These distinctions are made possible by using the TM5 and TM7, channels which are not available in the Landsat multispectral scanner (MSS). Digital masking was used to eliminate ambiguities due to water and shadows. However, some ambiguities in identification resulted between altered volcanic rocks and unaltered sedimentary deposits that contained clays, carbonates, and gypsum, and between altered volcanic rocks and volcanic tuffs diagenetically altered to zeolites. However, compared to MSS data, TM data should greatly improve the ability to map hydrothermally altered rocks in arid terrains.     

Metropolitan expansion and population density patterns in third world supercities as indicated by integration of space and ground data

Monitoring of the urbanization process in the less developed countries of the world is limited by the inadequacy of ground data such as censuses and by their explosive rates of population growth and spatial expansion. By integrating Landsat satellite imagery and available population data, more accurate analyses are possible than by using either medium alone. Using this technique, built-up area, population and patterns of population density for the year 1978 are quantified for six Third World supercities with population in excess of six million: Calcutta, Shanghai, Cairo, Mexico City, Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. Significant differences in density patterns between these cities appear to be related to economic level and culture.     

Landsat image data quality studies

The July 1982 launch of Landsat-4 was immediately followed by a two-year comprehensive set of detailed investigations sponsored by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC). The Landsat Image Data Quality Analysis (LIDQA) research plans for these investigations were specified prior to launch, so that minimum time would be lost in assessing the performance of the long-awaited Thematic Mapper (TM) sensor that Landsat-4 carried in addition to a fourth Multispectral Scanner (MSS). The LIDQA investigations have been substantially completed, and have shown that the TM is a very good spaceborne multispectral radiometer, and has met or exceeded most of its design goals. TM's new short-wave infrared (SWIR) spectral capability yielded improved mineral and plant discrimination compared to the MSS, as anticipated by ground-based and airborne TM simulations. Moreover, the improved spatial resolution and geometric accuracy of Landsat-4 and the TM have resulted in satellite image maps exceeding 1:100,000 U.S. map accuracy standards. Finally, based on an information entropy measure, principal component analysis, and classification results, TM data has been shown to approach its theoretical limit in information content per pixel, exceeding the MSS by at least a factor of two.     

Remote-sensing technology applied to forest assessment in California

Remote-sensing technology has been thoroughly evaluated for the analysis of California forest policy. A statewide, 1.6-acre-resolution, digital land-cover data base of Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS) classification has been produced. Three major resource regions have been analyzed in detail and one of them geographically integrated with 12 other physical and socioeconomic data layers to model fire and reforestation problems, using a geographic information system (GIS). A study of GIS design criteria has been conducted and the California Department of Forestry, the cooperator in all of these studies, is presently evaluating the alternatives and implementing certain aspects of them.     

Neotectonic investigations in the Pannonian basin based on satellite images

Analysis of Landsat images of the Mura depression in the Pannonian basin enabled identification of a number of lineaments that, in most cases, were not known from previous geological investigations. Many of these lineaments act as real faults and they have neotectonic significance. Combination of Landsat and field data made possible construction of a structural model that can explain the neotectonic evolution of this area. The model is based on wrench-tectonics, where Sava, ?o?tanje and Labod faults represent the first order wrench faults, and Donat, Ormo? and Ljutomer the second order wrench faults. During this wrenching only a few accompanying structural forms were newly generated. In most cases they follow a pre-existing regional fracture pattern.