3-D reconnection related to new emerging flux

We present evidences that emergence of new flux in the lower atmosphere leads to magnetic reconnection of field lines. In a first phase the phenomenon is observed in the chromosphere by the formation of dark filaments (arch filament system) which are overlaid by bright loops visible in soft X-rays. Different types of event appear according to the magnetic field configuration and the amount of energy involved. 3-D modelling of the photospheric magnetic field provides a new tool for understanding reconnection in real configurations. The observed chromospheric and coronal loops are good diagnostics for the modelling. We document our statement by examples obtained during coordinated campaigns with the H Multichannel Subtractive Double Pass spectrographs-MSDP (Pic du Midi and Tenerife) and the Yohkoh instruments.     

The magnetic field topology associated with two M flares

On 27 October, 2003, two GOES M-class flares occurred in an interval of 3 h in active region NOAA 10486. The two flares were confined and their associated brightenings appeared at the same location, displaying a very similar shape both at the chromospheric and coronal levels. We focus on the analysis of magnetic field (SOHO/MDI), chromospheric (HASTA, Kanzelhöhe Solar Observatory, TRACE) and coronal (TRACE) observations. By combining our data analysis with a model of the coronal magnetic field, we compute the magnetic field topology associated with the two M flares. We find that both events can be explained in terms of a localized magnetic reconnection process occurring at a coronal magnetic null point. This null point is also present at the same location one day later, on 28 October, 2003. Magnetic energy release at this null point was proposed as the origin of a localized event that occurred independently with a large X17 flare on 28 October, 2003 [Mandrini, C.H., Démoulin, P., Schmieder, B., Deluca, E., Pariat, E., Uddin, W. Companion event and precursor of the X17 flare on 28 October, 2003. Solar Physics, 238, 293–312, 2006], at 11:01 UT. The three events, those on 27 October and the one on 28 October, are homologous. Our results show that coronal null points can be stable topological structures where energy release via magnetic reconnection can happen, as proposed by classical magnetic reconnection models.     

The relationship between coronal mass ejections and solar flares

X-ray observations show that at a time consistent with a coronal mass ejection onset there is a small, soft X-ray burst (precursor). Generally this is followed some 20–30m later by a more significant flare. At the onset time there is frequently simultaneous activity from widely separated points on the Sun (>10⁵km). We present a model which accounts for the relationship between the coronal mass ejection and the precursor using 10²–10³ keV protons as the energy transfer agent. The protons (1) heat the high coronal loop. Inferred from the simultaneous activity, destabilizing the pressure balance to produce the ejection and (2) are guided by the magnetic field to below the transition region where they heat the chromospheric plasma to produce the precursor X-rays. High correlation between these events and a subsequent flare suggests that there may be a feedback mechanism operating from the coronal mass ejection.     

Energy transfer in solar flares

We review the recent advances in the field of energy transfer and dissipation in solar flares. New observations and theoretical results have been obtained during the SMY and discussed in several workshops. Important new results have been provided by imaging hard X-ray and radio observations, high resolution spectra in the soft X-ray range, polarization measurements and combined optical, gamma- and X-ray data. We summarize results on the following topics: a) interpretation of hard X-ray bursts; b) heating and cooling of X-ray flare plasmas; c) chromospheric heating and evaporation; d) white-light flares. An overall picture of the importance of transfer processes is given, together with prospects for development of future research topics.     

Evidence for a solar coronal thick-target hard X-ray source observed by RHESSI

We study a solar flare hard X-ray (HXR) source observed by the Reuven Ramaty high energy solar spectroscopic imager (RHESSI) in which the HXR emission is almost entirely in a coronal loop so dense as to be collisionally thick at electron energies up to ∼45−60 keV. This contrasts with most events previously reported in which the HXR emission is primarily from the loop footpoints in the collisionally dense chromosphere. In particular, we show that the high loop column densities inferred from the GOES and RHESSI soft X-ray emission measure and the volume of the flare loop are consistent with the coronal thick-target interpretation of the HXR images and spectra. The high column densities observed already at the very beginning of the impulsive phase are explained by chromospheric evaporation during a preflare which, as Nobeyama 17 GHz radio images reveal, took place in the same set of nested loops as the main flare.     

Asymmetric X-ray line broadening in solar flares

The symmetry and time development of X-ray spectral lines are examined for many flares using Yohkoh Bragg Crystal Spectrometer (BCS) observations. We examine the degree of line blueshift and asymmetric broadening as a function of flare impulsiveness. The results of the analysis present a consistent observational picture for the 16 flares that were studied. The blueshift of the total flare spectrum increases with increasing fractional rate of change of flux. This result supports models that predict stronger heating in flares results in more blueshifted plasma. It also suggests that most flares will exhibit very weak or no blueshifts if the peak fractional energy release rate remains relatively low. This will be the case if stationary plasma builds up quickly by early ‘gentle’ evaporation or rapid slowing of moving plasma, even when most of the hot plasma is generated by explosive chromospheric evaporation.     

Origin and location of chromospheric evaporation in flares

Observation of two flares obtained with the Solar Maximum Mission spectrometers indicate that at flare onset the emission in soft (3.5 – 8 keV) and hard (16 – 30 keV) X-rays is predominant at the footpoints of the flaring loops. Since, at the same time, blue-shifts are observed in the soft X-ray spectra from the plasma at temperature of 10⁷ K, we infer that material is injected at high velocity into the coronal loops from the footpoints. These areas are also the sites of energy deposition, since their emission in hard X-rays is due to non-thermal electrons penetrating in the denser atmosphere. Hence, chromospheric evaporation occurs where energy is deposited. During the impulsive phase, the configuration of the flare region changes indicating that the flaring loop is progressively filled by hot plasma.     

太阳宁静区磁漏斗结构的扩展特征

通过对观测的光球纵向磁场进行势场外推, 重构了一个太阳宁静区光球以上的磁场结构. 结果显示, 在20 Mm 以下, 开放磁力线呈现多个明显的小磁漏斗结构, 这些小磁漏斗结构随高度扩展, 并且在20 Mm 左右融合成大的漏斗结构. 通过系统地研究磁漏斗结构横截面积随高度的变化趋势, 发现太阳宁静区磁漏斗结构的截面积随高度近似线性扩展, 磁漏斗结构在较低高度上(<20Mm) 扩展的速度比在较高高度上 (>20Mm) 扩展的速度要快. 这一结果对太阳风起源和磁环中物质流动的二维数值模拟具有重要的意义. 同时还发现, 闭合磁力线的数目随高度以指数函数的形式减少.      

Energy balance and stability

Recent theoretical work pertaining to the energy balance and stability of stellar coronae is reviewed. While in magnetically confined coronal regions coronal heating balances only the radiation losses of the corona and transition region, open regions can also lose energy by means of stellar wind and outward thermal conduction. The relative importance of these kinds of energy losses, and the asymptotic properties of the stellar wind, depend sensitively on the radial distribution of the energy input. Solar coronal models, both for open and closed regions, can often be applied to other stars. The requirements for which this is possible are briefly discussed. Stability analyses that are not restricted to the corona alone, but rather include the transition region and upper chromosphere, are important for our understanding of the detailed energy balance of outer stellar atmospheres. The stability of the complete system chromosphere/transition region/corona is probably closely related to the recent observational result that with increasing stellar activity the coronal radiation increases faster than the chromospheric radiation.     

Search for a chromospheric resonator above sunspots

We have recently observed thirteen sunspots, both with CDS on SOHO and TRACE. For each sunspot we investigate the oscillations in the chromosphere, transition region and corona. Above the umbra the power spectra show one dominant peak corresponding to a period of 3 minutes. The intensity oscillation amplitude increases with increasing temperature, reaches a maximum for lines emitting close to 1–2 × 10⁵ K, and decreases for higher temperatures. Part of the wave energy penetrates into the corona, channeled into small areas that appear to coincide with the endpoints of sunspot coronal loops. The observations support the hypothesis that the oscillations are caused by upwardly propagating acoustic waves and show no signs of the resonances, equally spaced ≈1 mHz in frequency, predicted by the chromospheric resonator theories.     

RHESSI observations of the coronal component ofsolar flare hard X-ray sources

In flares that occur behind the limb, the intense chromospheric (foot-point) part of the hard X-ray source is occulted, thus permitting good observations of the coronal component. Between 15 and 18 April 2002, RHESSI observed a series of small (GOES Class C) flares produced by the active region NOAA 9905 as it rotated behind the west limb. A preliminary analysis of the observed hard X-ray sources in the 17–18 April 2002 flares has confirmed that flare-associated sources of gradual 12–25 keV X-ray emission can exist in the corona at heights up to 27000 km.     

Physics of the impulsive phase of solar flares

The physics of the impulsive phase of solar flares is discussed in relation to high resolution microwave, hard X-ray and ultraviolet observations. High spatial resolution observations of the structure of microwave flaring loops and their interpretation in terms of arcades of loops as the sites of primary energy release are presented. Theoretical interpretation of the confinement of microwave producing energetic electrons in the coronal part of loops is discussed. High temporal and spatial resolution measurements in hard X-rays, as well as observations of the spectral evolution of the hard X-ray emission are presented. Observations of the relative locations of microwave and hard X-ray emitting regions are presented and their significance with respect to the energy release site and electron acceleration is discussed. The relative timing of the peaks of impulsive hard X-ray and microwave burst is discussed. The significance of ultraviolet measurements in obtaining the density of flaring regions is discussed. Possible diagnostics of impulsive phase onsets from cm-λ polarization data are presented, and the role of the emergence of new flux and of the current sheet formed between closed loops in producing impulsive energy release at centimeter wavelengths are analyzed. Decimeter and meter wave manifestations of preflash phase and millisecond pulsations at centimeter and decimeter wavelengths and the relevant physical processes involved are discussed.     

Kuafu and the studies of CME initiation

We first briefly review the current trend in the studies of coronal mass ejections (CMEs), then summarize some recent efforts in understanding the CME initiation. Emphasis has been put on the studies of Earth-directed CMEs whose associated surface activity and large scale magnetic source have been well identified. The data analysis by combining the MDI full disc magnetograms, vector magnetograms of active regions, EUV waves and dimmings, non-thermal radio sources, and the SOHO LASCO observations has shed new light in understanding the CME magnetism. However, the current studies seem to invoke new observations in a few aspects: (1) The observations which enable us to trace CMEs from the earliest associated surface activity to its initial acceleration and key development in the low corona in the height of 1–3 R; (2) The imaging spectroscopic observations which can be used to diagnose the early plasma outflow and the line-of-sight velocity in understanding the kinematics of CMEs; (3) The accurate timing from primary magnetic energy release, manifested by chromospheric activity, non-thermal radio bursts, and EUV, X-ray and γ-ray emissions, to the CME initiation, early acceleration and propagation, and the consequences in the interplanetary space and magnetosphere. The Kuafu Mission will meet the basic requirement for the new observations in CME initiation studies and serve as a monitor of space weather of the Sun–Earth system.     

Understanding solar flares from opticalobservations: How do particle beams affect the lower atmosphere?

During the impulsive phase of solar flares, both hard X-ray (HXR) and optical emissions exhibit fast temporal fluctuations detectable down to sub-second scales. This is usually ascribed to the propagation of beams of accelerated particles and to the dissipation of their energy in lower layers of the solar atmosphere. Although it is rather difficult to prove a temporal correlation between HXR and optical intensity variations, we discuss here some previous results and recent attempts. Namely in coordination with RHESSI observations, several ground-based observatories started to detect fast optical variations in the H line. In addition to this, we also mention a possibility of using some other diagnostically important lines. The proper interpretation of coordinated HXR and optical observations further requires robust tools for radiation-hydrodynamical (RHD) forward modeling. We briefly describe a new ‘hybrid’ code which consists of RHD part and particle-simulation part. Short-duration heating due to beam pulses is modeled which allows us to predict temporal fluctuations of HXR and selected optical and UV lines formed in chromospheric layers and in the transition region. Particularly the line asymmetries originating in a highly dynamical lower atmosphere of the flare can be used to diagnose the response of these layers to particle beams.     

Observational evidence for chromospheric footpoint penetration of nonthermal electrons during two well-observed flares

Recent advances have enabled simultaneous Hα and X-ray observations with substantially improved spatial, spectral, and temporal resolution. In this paper we study two events observed as part of a coordinated observing program between the Solar Maximum Mission and Sacramento Peak Observatory: the flares of 1456 UT, 7 May 1980 and 1522 UT, 24 June 1980. Using recently-developed physical models of static flare chromospheres, and corresponding theoretical Hα line profiles, we can distinguish effects of intense nonthermal electron heating from those of high conduction and pressure from the overlying flare corona. Both flares show the signature of intense chromospheric heating by fast electrons, temporally correlated with X-ray light curves at E > 27keV, and spatially associated with X-ray emission sites at E >62; 16 keV. Interpreting the Hα line profile observations using the theoretical Hα line profiles, we infer values of the thick-target input power contained in nonthermal electrons that are observationally indistinguishable (within a factor of 2–3) from those inferred from the X-ray data. Although these events are small, the energy flux values are large: of order 10¹¹ ergs cm^?2 s^?1 above 20 keV.     

On the early phase of relativistic solar particle events: Are there signatures of acceleration mechanism?

Many physical processes precede and accompany the solar energetic particles (SEP) occurrence on the Earth’s orbit. Explosive energy release on the Sun gives rise to a flare and a coronal mass ejection (CME). X-ray and gamma emissions are believed to be connected with flares. Radio emission is signature of disturbances traveling through the corona and interplanetary space. Particles can gain energy both in the flare and the accompanying wave processes. The beginning of the SEP events has the advantage of being the phase most close to the time of acceleration. Influence of interplanetary transport is minimal in the case of first arriving relativistic solar protons recorded by ground based neutron monitors in so called ground-level enhancements (GLE). The early phase of the SEP events attracts attention of many scientists searching for the understanding of particle acceleration. However, they come to the opposite conclusions. While some authors find arguments for coronal mass ejections as a sole accelerator of SEPs, others prove a flare to be the SEP origin. Here, the circumstances of SEP generation for several GLEs of the 23rd solar cycle are considered. Timing of X-ray, CME, and radio emissions shows a great variety from event to event. However, the time of particle ejection from the Sun is closer to maximum of X-ray emission than to any other phenomena considered. No correlation is found between the particle fluxes and the CME characteristics.     

用半经验模型研究耀斑大气的能量耗散

本文利用南京大学太阳塔多波段光谱资料推求出的两个耀斑(一个SB级,一个2B级)的半经验模型;计算了耀斑不同时刻的辐射损失速率,并与电子束轰击和X线作用下的产能率作了比较.结果表明,耀斑不同时刻的色球辐射损失变化可达一个量级以上;耀斑脉冲相前后电子束轰击加热相当有效;耀斑强度极大时,电子束轰击和X线加热都有作用;耀斑主相时,X线加热更能有效地平衡辐射损失.但是,尤其是对大耀斑来说,色球低层和光球上层的加热既不能用电子束轰击,也不能用X线的作用来解释;可能存在某种把能量从色球上层向低层转移的机制.研究也表明,耀斑随时间变化的半经验模型为研究耀斑的能量耗散过程提供了很好的工具.      

Hard X-ray and metric/decimetric spatially resolvedobservations of the 10 April 2002 solar flare

The GOES M8.2 flare on 10 April 2002 at 1230 UT was observed at X-ray wavelengths by RHESSI and atmetric/decimetric wavelengths by the Nançay Radioheliograph (NRH). We discuss the temporal evolution of X-ray sources together with the evolution of the radio emission sites observed at different coronal heights by the NRH. While the first strong HXR peak at energies above 50 keV arises from energy release in compact magnetic structures (with spatial scales of a few 10⁴ km) and is not associated with strong radio emission, the second one leads to energy release in magnetic structures with scales larger than 10⁵ km and is associated with intense decimetric/metric and dekametric emissions. We discuss these observations in the context of the acceleration sites of energetic electrons interacting at the Sun and of escaping ones.