Satellite measurements of atmospheric composition: Three years' observations of CH4 and N2O

The stratospheric and mesospheric sounder (SAMS) was launched in October 1978 on the NIMBUS 7 satellite. Between then and its eventual failure in June 1983 the instrument was used to collect over four years of radiance data from which atmospheric temperature and the abundances of a number of minor constituents have been derived. The paper will present fields of CH₄ and N₂O between 50S and 70N derived from SAMS data for the period 1979–1981. Global distributions of CH₄ and N₂O will be presented in various forms and the observed seasonal changes and interannual variability will be described. The paper will compare the SAMS CH₄ and N₂O data with model predictions and will comment upon some other areas of interest.     

Satellite measurements of tropospheric aerosols

The ability to measure tropospheric aerosols over ocean surfaces has been demonstrated using several different satellite sensors. Landsat data originally showed that a linear relationship exists between the upwelling visible radiance and the aerosol optical thickness (about 90% of this thickness is generally in the lowest 3 km of the atmosphere). Similar relationships have also been found for sensors on GOES, NOAA-5 and NOAA-6 satellites. The linear relationship has been shown theoretically to vary with the aerosol properties, such as size distribution and refractive index, although the Landsat data obtained at San Diego showed little variability in the relationship. To investigate the general applicability of the technique to different locations, a global-scale ground-truth experiment was conducted in 1980 with the AVHRR sensor on NOAA-6 to determine the relationship at ten ocean sites around the globe. The data for four sites have been analyzed, and show excellent agreement between the aerosol content measured by the AVHRR and by sunphotometers at San Diego, Sable Island and San Juan, but at Barbados, the AVHRR appears to overestimate the aerosol content. The reason for the different relationship at the Barbados site has not been definitely established, but is most likely related to problems in interpreting the sunphotometer data rather than to a real overestimation by the AVHRR. A preliminary analysis of AVHRR Channel 1 (0.65 μm) and Channel 2 (0.85 μm) radiances suggest that useful information on the aerosol size distribution may also be obtained from satellite observations.     

Satellite measurements of cloud reflectance and optical thickness

We have computed the cloud reflectance and the optical thickness with the aid of atmospheric models from the first eleven months (April 1970 – February 1971) of Backscattered Ultraviolet (BUV) data over the pacific ocean. Both the cloud and the optical thickness are derived from the 380 nm channel by assuming that the entire IFOV (200 Km.) is filled by stratiform clouds. Our analysis show a large variability in the cloud reflectance in both the intertropic conversion zone (ITCZ) and the high latitudes. We also find that for 90% of the time in tropics, the clouds have optical thickness < 10. Our analysis of clouds with optical thickness between 10 and 20 show that in tropics the minimum frequency coincides with the dry zone at 2.5°s and the maximum frequency for clouds of optical thickness 10–20 is greater in summer than in winter and irrespective of the season, 50% of the time the clouds have optical thickness less than 13.     

Rocket-borne measurements of atmospheric infrared emissions by spectrometric techniques

As part of the MAP/WINE Campaign 1983/84 a liquid helium cooled infrared grating spectrometer measured night zenith radiances of CO₂, O₃, and H₂O in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere. From a comparison of the measured spectral radiances with results from LTE radiative transfer calculations atmospheric temperatures and concentration profiles of H₂O and O₃ were determined, showing some interesting features. The ozone densities obtained appear to contradict model predictions based upon the assumption that ozone is in photochemical equilibrium at mesospheric heights. Since the ozone density distribution shows quite similar structures as the vertical wind profile, transport effects seem to play a major role in the mesospheric ozone formation.     

A balloon-borne sun-tracking multichannel photometer for atmospheric aerosol measurements

A balloon borne multichannel photometer for measurement of atmospheric scattering in the near ultraviolet and the visible wavelength regions has been developed at the Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad for study of the size distribution and number density of aerosols at tropospheric and lower stratospheric altitudes. The instrumentation involves tracking the sun in elevation and scanning in azimuth. The payload was recently flown on a 100 kg. balloon from the Hyderabad Balloon Facility on 18 April 1984. The balloon reached a float altitude of 35 km and good quality data has been obtained from an altitude of 6 km upto float altitude. Data analysis is still in progress. The present paper details the instrument design and presents a few illustrations of the instrument performance from this flight.     

A comparison of atmospheric aerosol measurements by various satellite sensors

Investigations to measure the vertical optical thickness of aerosols over ocean surfaces has been conducted using several different satellite sensors. Landsat 1 and Landsat 2 data originally confirmed that a linear relationship exists between the upwelling visible radiance and the aerosol optical thickness (about 90% of this thickness is generally in the lowest 3 km of the atmosphere). Similar relationships have also been found for sensors on GOES-1, SMS-2, NOAA-5, and NOAA-6 satellites. The linear relationship has been shown theoretically to vary with the aerosol properties, such as size distribution and refractive index, although the Landsat data obtained at San Diego showed little variability in the relationship. The differences between the results found for the various satellite sensors are discussed, and are attributed mainly to uncertainties in the calibration of the sensors. To investigate the general applicability of the technique to different locations, a global-scale ground truth experiment was conducted with the AVHRR sensor on NOAA-6 to determine the relationship at eleven ocean sites around the globe. Analysis of the data shows good agreement between the satellite and ground truth values of the aerosol optical thickness, and indicates that the technique has global application. At two of the sites, multispectral radiometric measurements of the Junge aerosol size distribution parameter were made, and showed good agreement with a value inferred from the AVHRR Channels 1 and 2 radiances.     

GNSS Satellite Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (SAIM) using inter-satellite measurements

Integrity is the ability of Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) to detect faults in measurements and provide timely warnings to users and operators when the navigation system cannot meet the defined performance standards, which is of great importance for safety of life critical applications. Compared with both Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) and ground based GNSS Integrity Channel (GIC) methods which are widely adopted nowadays, the Satellite Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (SAIM) method can be used to monitor orbit/ephemeris and clock errors, and has advantages in monitoring orbit and clock quality and providing instantaneous responses when faults happen.     

Advanced techniques for plasma composition and dynamics measurements

Magnetic and RF mass spectrometers have been used routinely in ionospheric research, while traditional ionospheric, magnetospheric, and interplanetary plasma measurements have been made with several types of electrostatic analyzers. Proper interpretation of these data is possible if the spectral peaks are well defined, although ambiguities between fast, light ions and slow, heavy ions cannot always be satisfactorily resolved. Recent and planned experiments involve the study of plasmas which are sufficiently energetic that the spectral peaks overlap. Furthermore, these studies of ionosphere/magnetosphere coupling and of the interaction of the solar wind with the atmospheres of Venus and comets require unambiguous identification of the ion masses with simultaneous mapping of the three-dimensional velocity distribution function of each ion species. This challenge has been partially met by several new types of instruments; the two most common types involve either (1) sequential electrostatic and magnetic analyses or (2) sequential electrostatic and time-of-flight analyses. Some new instruments have also incorporated measurements of total kinetic energy, electric charge, or secondary emission coefficients as diagnostic tools. This paper reviews these recent advances and points out areas where further development is expected and needed.     

Validation of satellite-derived atmospheric temperature and water vapor concentration using radiosonde and rocketsonde measurements

Measurements of the spectral radiance of the earth's atmosphere from satellites can be related to the vertical structures of temperature and humidity. Derived profiles of these quantities are compared with radiosonde and rocketsonde observations, as well as with horizontal and vertical cross-sections of the atmosphere. In some regions of the atmosphere, particularly where large gradients are found, significant differences occur. A method for overcoming these by use of Typical Shape Functions is discussed. Transmittances computed from theory require modifications which are not well defined, and radiances measured from some satellite instruments disagree with computed values in ways which suggest calibration or instrument problems.     

Application of HF Doppler measurements for the investigation of internal atmospheric waves in the ionosphere

We present results of the spectral analysis of data series of Doppler frequency shifted signals reflected from the ionosphere, using experimental data received at Kazan University, Russia. Spectra of variations with periods from 1 min to 60 days have been calculated and analyzed for different scales of periods. The power spectral density for spring and winter differs by a factor of 3–4. Local maxima of variation amplitude are detected, which are statistically significant. The periods of these amplitude increases range from 6 to 12 min for winter, and from 24 to 48 min for autumn. Properties of spectra for variations with the periods of 1–72 h have been analyzed. The maximum of variation intensity for all seasons and frequencies corresponds to the period of 24 h. Spectra of variations with periods from 3 to 60 days have been calculated. The maxima periods of power spectral density have been detected by the MUSIC method for the high spectral resolution. The detected periods correspond to planetary wave periods. Analysis of spectra for days with different level of geomagnetic activity shows that the intensity of variations for days with a high level of geomagnetic activity is higher.     

Chemical composition measurements of the atmosphere of Jupiter with the Galileo Probe mass spectrometer.

The Galileo Probe entered the atmosphere of Jupiter on December 7, 1995. Measurements of the chemical and isotopic composition of the Jovian atmosphere were obtained by the mass spectrometer during the descent over the 0.5 to 21 bar pressure region over a time period of approximately 1 hour. The sampling was either of atmospheric gases directly introduced into the ion source of the mass spectrometer through capillary leaks or of gas, which had been chemically processed to enhance the sensitivity of the measurement to trace species or noble gases. The analysis of this data set continues to be refined based on supporting laboratory studies on an engineering unit. The mixing ratios of the major constituents of the atmosphere hydrogen and helium have been determined as well as mixing ratios or upper limits for several less abundant species including: methane, water, ammonia, ethane, ethylene, propane, hydrogen sulfide, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon. Analysis also suggests the presence of trace levels of other 3 and 4 carbon hydrocarbons, or carbon and nitrogen containing species, phosphine, hydrogen chloride, and of benzene. The data set also allows upper limits to be set for many species of interest which were not detected. Isotope ratios were measured for 3He/4He, D/H, 13C/12C, 20Ne/22Ne, 38Ar/36Ar and for isotopes of both Kr and Xe.     

The Lyman-alpha absorption anomaly in satellite occulation measurements as a tracer for some thermospheric composition variations

The absorption anomaly of Lyman-alpha radiation in satellite occultation experiments is known as the fact that extinction above 100 km is much stronger than absorption by atmospheric O₂ alone would explain. Additional absorption by NO or H₂O has been suggested but none has been clearly identified so far. The additional absorption occurs predominantly in middle and high latitudes of the winter hemisphere, but has also been found in equatorial latitudes. Recent measurements of NO would explain the Lyman-alpha absorption anomaly. The high densities of the additional Lyman-alpha absorber at lower latitudes could be explained by transport processes through global circulation systems of the higher thermosphere. Structural variations of the neutral gas derived from occultation measurements seem to indicate that thermospheric low pressure systems in mid latitudes modulate the transport of tracer constituents and heat energy from higher latitudes to the equator.     

星地激光时间比对在卫星导航系统中的应用

星地精密激光时间比对具有精度高、系统误差少等优点,因此利用星地精密激光时间比对,不但可以对无线电时间比对进行外部精度检验,而且可以检验并分离无线电伪距测量的系统误差,分析检测设备时延的不稳定性和卫星钟的中短期性能指标,提高卫星钟差的预报精度。     

战术卫星-4:“快速响应航天”计划添新星

美国海军新型先进战术通信试验卫星——战术卫星-4计划于2011年5月或6月用人牛怪-4火箭从阿拉斯加科迪亚克岛发射场发射。它是美国快速响应航天计划系列试验卫星之一,具有体积更小、成本更低和发射速度更快等优点,用于增强传统卫星通信,提供10个特高频信道。每天可以对热点地区提供3次、每次2小时覆盖,能在24小时周期内为全球多个战场提供支持。     

日本天文-H卫星升空后不久失联

1 项目背景 日本自20世纪70年代中期开始,就以日本宇宙航空研究开发机构下属的宇宙科学研究所(ISAS,原文部省宇宙科学研究所)为核心开始研发和应用以X射线天文卫星为主的天文卫星.1976-2005年,日本共发射了7颗X射线天文卫星,其中5颗发射成功,按预定计划执行了一系列观测任务,取得了不斐的成绩.如:利用天文-D于1993年4月5日成功捕获到了刚发现的M81银河系的超新星SN1993放射出的X射线;利用2005年发射的天文-E2卫星配备的软X射线望远镜(SXT)所进行的一系列观测活动,不仅大幅拓展了观测范围(从原来的软X射线拓展到软γ射线),而且发现了距地球较近(8000万光年)处的黑洞,对人类了解宇宙结构、掌握宇宙全貌、厘清宇宙进化发挥了重要作用.     

新兴卫星互联网星座对传统卫星制造发展的启示

1 商业通信卫星制造进入小时代对于商业卫星制造业的发展来说,2015年1月16日是个值得纪念的日子.美国太空探索技术公司(SpaceX)的总裁伊隆·马斯克(Elon Musk)宣布了一项雄心勃勃的卫星互联网计划,将在西雅图开设一个卫星制造工厂,在未来5年内研制4000颗低地球轨道(LEO)卫星,提供全球互联网接入服务,并在20日宣布获得了来自谷歌公司(Google)和富达投资公司(Fidelity Investment)10亿美元的投资.     

Demonstration of the use of the Doppler Orbitography and Radio positioning Integrated by Satellite (DORIS) measurements to validate GPS ionospheric imaging

There is a lack of independent ionospheric data that can be used to validate GPS imaging results at mid latitudes over severe storm times. Doppler Orbitography and Radio positioning Integrated by Satellite (DORIS), a global network of dual-frequency ground to satellite observations, provides this missing data and here is employed as verification to show the accuracy of the ionospheric GPS images in terms of the total electron content (TEC). In this paper, the large-scale ionospheric structures that appeared during the strong geomagnetic storm of 20 November 2003 are reconstructed with a GPS tomographic algorithm, known as MIDAS, and validated with DORIS TEC measurements. The main trough shown in an extreme equatorward position in the ionospheric imaging over mainland Europe is confirmed by DORIS satellite measurements. Throughout the disturbed day, the variations of relative slant TECs between DORIS data and MIDAS results agree quite well, with the average of the mean differences about 2 TECu. We conclude that as a valuable supplement to GPS data, DORIS ionospheric measurements can be used to analyse TEC variations with a relatively high resolution, ∼10 s in time and tens of kilometres in space. This will be very helpful for identification of some highly dynamic structures in the ionosphere found at mid-latitudes, such as the main trough, TID (Travelling Ionospheric Disturbances) and SED (Storm Enhanced Density), and could be used as a valuable auxiliary data source in ionospheric imaging.     

小卫星姿控与星务管理的一体化设计

介绍一种将姿控系统和星务管理系统融为一体的设计思想，它节约了星载机资源，提高了系统信息处理的实时性，很好地体现了小卫星的质量轻、体积小、成本低的优势。对姿控系统的硬件组成、卫星的飞行模式和控制策略、星务管理软件的体系结构和总结设计思想、姿控软件的星务管理软件的接口设计等内容做了重点讨论。     

Satellite observations of sea ice

An overview is presented of Antarctic and Arctic sea ice studies using data from the Nimbus-5 ESMR and the Nimbus-7 SMMR passive microwave radiometers. Four years (1973–1976) of ESMR data for the Antarctic Ocean define the characteristics of the seasonal cycle including regional contrasts and interannual variations. Major advances include the discovery of the Weddell polynya and the presence of substantial areas of open water in the Antarctic winter pack ice. Regional differences in sea ice extent on time-scales of about a month are shown to be associated with variations in surface-wind fields. In the Arctic, the computation of sea ice concentration is complicated by the presence of multiyear ice, but the amount of multiyear ice becomes an important measurable quantity with dual-polarized, multifrequency passive microwave sensors. Analysis of SMMR data demonstrates its advantage for studying the spatial and temporal variability of the Arctic ice cover. Large observed interannual variations in the distribution of the multiyear pack ice and the presence of significant divergent areas in the central Arctic during winter contrast markedly with the classical view of the Arctic pack ice.