Dust environment models for comet P/Halley: Support for targeting of the GIOTTO S/C

In March 1985 ESA's GIOTTO spacecraft will fly by P/Halley's nucleus at a distance of a few hundred kilometres. The near nucleus dust environment the probe will traverse poses a hazard with respect to physical damage as well as to attitude disturbance with the possible loss of ground station contact. To predict S/C survivability and dust impact rates for the experiments, a model of the spatial distribution of the dust in the nucleus' vicinity is required. In the ‘dynamic’ model, the local spatial dust density is derived from exact expressions for the dust particle dynamic motion. The model has been implemented in a software system which allows for fast simulations of a cometary fly-by.     

A European probe to comet Halley

A European probe to comet Halley is proposed. The probe's model payload consists of 8 scientific instruments, viz. neutral, ion and dust impact mass spectrometers, magnetometer, medium energy ion and electron analyzer, camera, dust impact detectors and plasma wave experiment. Fly-by of the comet Halley nucleus will take place on November 28th, 1985, at about 500 km miss distance. The main spacecraft serves as relay link to transmit the observed data to Earth. As probe, a modified ISEE 2 design is proposed. Because of the cometary dust hazard expected in the coma a heavy dust shield (27 kg) is required, consisting of a thin front sheet and a 3 layer rear sheet. The probe is spin-stabilized (12 rpm), has no active attitude and orbit control capability and uses battery power only to provide about 1000 Wh for a measuring phase. A despun antenna transmits up to 20 kbit/s, in X-band. The total probe mass is estimated at 250 kg. The 3 model development programme should start in mid 1981 with Phase B.     

Comet Halley observations to date

Following Comet Halley's recovery on 16 October, 1982, several astrometric, photometric, and spectroscopic observations have been obtained. The results derived from these observations are presented.     

The derivation of Halley parameters from observations

A set of nominal model parameters for P/Halley is derived from its light curve and spectra. In those cases where Halley observations are not sufficient, the average value derived from a large set of other comets has been used, or data from comet Bennett, Halley's best analogue has been taken. The derived parameters include nucleus mass, size, density, albedo, rotation period, axial inclination, and surface temperature, the composition of the parent molecules, the total gas and dust production rates, distributions for the dust size and bulk density as well as various other parameters.     

Cometary magnetospheres: a tutorial

The nucleus of an active comet, such as comet Halley near its perihelion, produces large quantities of gas and dust. The resulting cometary atmosphere, or coma, extends more than a million kilometers into space, where it interacts with the solar wind. An “induced” cometary magnetosphere is a consequence of this interaction. Cometary ion pick-up and mass loading of the solar wind starts to take place at very large cometocentric distances. Eventually this mass loading leads to the formation of a weak cometary bow shock. Even closer to the nucleus, collisional processes, such as ion-neutral chemistry, become important. Other features of the magnetosphere of an active comet include a magnetic barrier, a magnetotail, and a diamagnetic cavity near the nucleus. X-ray emission from comets is produced by the interaction of the solar wind with cometary neutrals and this topic is also discussed. A broad review of the cometary magnetosphere will be given in this paper.     

Comparative study of the dust emission of 19P/Borrelly (Deep space 1) and 1P/Halley

Images obtained by the Miniature Integrated Camera and Imaging Spectrometer (MICAS) experiment onboard the Deep Space 1 spacecraft which encountered comet 19P/Borrelly on September 22nd 2001 show a dust coma dominated by jets. In particular a major collimated dust jet on the sunward side of the nucleus was observed. Our approach to analyse these features is to integrate the observed intensity in concentric envelopes around the nucleus. The same procedures has been used on the Halley Multicolour Camera images of comet 1P/Halley acquired on March 14th 1986. We are able to show that at Borrelly the dust brightness dependence as a function of radial distance is different to that of Halley. At large distances both comets show constant values as the size of the concentric envelopes increases (as one would expect for force free radial outflow). For Halley the integral decreases as one gets closer to the nucleus. Borrelly shows opposite behaviour. The main cause for Halley's intensity distribution is either high optical thickness or particle fragmentation. For Borrelly, we have constructed a simple model of the brightness distribution near the nucleus. This indicates that the influence of deviations from point source geometry is insufficient to explain the observed steepening of the intensity profile close to the nucleus. Dust acceleration or fragmentation into submicron particles appear to be required. We also estimate the dust production rate of Borrelly with respect to Halley and compare their dust to gas ratios.     

Pluto's atmospheric bulk near perihelion

The detection of CH₄ frost on Pluto's surface implies a significant atmosphere for Pluto. Although Pluto's mass is small, about 7% of Triton's mass, the rapid escape (“blowoff”) of gaseous CH₄ can be prevented by the presence of a heavy gas mixed with the CH₄. The resulting slow escape (“Jeans escape”) of CH₄ can be accomodated by sublimation of the surface CH₄ frost so that an atmosphere exists in the steady state. A heavier gas must exist, otherwise the CH₄ frost would have sublimated away long ago because of solar heat and rapid blowoff of gaseous CH₄. Pluto is currently near perihelion where the CH₄ component of the atmosphere may be 500 times denser than at apehelion. Significant seasonal changes in the atmospheric bulk are therefore possible. Currently, the CH₄ column abundance on Pluto's sunlit hemisphere is on the order of 1 m-Amagat. The abundance of the heavier gas should be at least an order of magnitude greater but is uncertain.     

Trapping of gases by water ice and implications for icy bodies.

The trapping of various gases by water ice at low temperatures (20-80K) and their release from the ice upon warming, was studied experimentally. The results of these experiments, together with a computation of the thermal evolution of a cometary nucleus, can explain the gas and dust jets which were observed to emanate from the nucleus of P/Halley. The experimental results are important also to the gas content of Titan.     

Rocket observation of the ultraviolet spectrum of comet Halley

An ultraviolet sounding rocket telescope/spectrograph experiment observed Comet Halley on 26 February 1986, 17 days after perihelion. From the long-slit spectra, the production rates of O, C, and CO are calculated. The derived water production rate is a lower limit of 5.0 × 10²⁹ s⁻¹ and the volume mixing ratio of CO to H₂O is 21%. The predicted brightness distribution from a radial outflow model with H₂O and CO as parent molecules are in accordance with the measured spatial profiles of OI and CO emissions. The ratio of the production rates of CO to C is 2.7 which is consistent with the carbon source being the photodissociation of CO. However, the radial outflow model which best fits the CO data predicts significantly weaker CI emissions than was observed. A better fit to the carbon data is found when an inner coma source of C at a rate of 3% of the water production rate is included in the model.     

Energetic positive ions in the cometary “foreshock” region

Ions produced by ionization of the cometary neutrals interact with the solar wind protons to produce large amplitude oscillations of the ambient magnetic field. Such oscillations are convected towards the comet at the unperturbed solar wind speed far from the shock and at a lower speed closer to the shock (due to the solar wind mass loading); hence, they can energize the incoming ions by Fermi acceleration. The spatial extension of the acceleration region is of the order of 10⁶ km and the resulting energy spectrum is harder than in the Earth's bow shock case. The energization of cometary ions produces an additional deceleration of the solar wind. It is suggested that Comet Halley may be the most efficient “cosmic ray shock” in the solar system.     

Cometary constraints on the planet forming environment.

Molecular elemental and isotopic abundances of comets provide sensitive diagnostics for models of the primitive solar nebula. New measurements of the N2, NH and NH2 abundances in comets together with the in situ Giotto mass spectrometer and dust analyzer data provide new constraints for models of the comet forming environment in the solar nebula. An inventory of nitrogen-containing species in comet Halley indicates that NH3 and CN are the dominant N carriers observed in the coma gas. The elemental nitrogen abundance in the gas component of the coma is found to be depleted by a factor approximately 75 relative to the solar photosphere. Combined with the Giotto dust analyzer results for the coma dust component, we find for comet Halley Ngas + dust approximately 1/6 the solar value. The measurement of the CN carbon isotope ratio from the bulk coma gas and dust in comet Halley indicates a significantly lower value, 12C/13C = 65 +/- 9 than the solar system value of 89 +/- 2. Because the dominant CN carrier species in comets remains unidentified, it is not yet possible to attribute the low isotope ratio predominantly to the bulk gas or dust components. The large chemical and isotopic inhomogeneities discovered in the Halley dust particles on 1 mu scales are indicative of preserved circumstellar grains which survived processing in the interstellar clouds, and may be related to the presolar silicon carbide, diamond and graphite grains recently discovered in carbonaceous chondrites. Less than 0.1% of the bulk mass in the primitive meteorites studied consists of these cosmically important grains. A larger mass fraction (approximately 5%) of chemically heterogeneous organic grains is found in the nucleus of comet Halley. The isotopic anomalies discovered in the PUMA 1 Giotto data in comet Halley are probably also attributable to preserved circumstellar grains. Thus the extent of grain processing in the interstellar environment is much less than predicted by interstellar grain models, and a significant fraction of comet nuclei (approximately 5%) may be in the form of preserved circumstellar matter. Comet nuclei probably formed in much more benign environments than primitive meteorites.     

锂离子电池热失控气体燃烧对热失控传播影响的量化方法

为量化锂离子电池热失控过程产生热失控气体对热失控传播的影响,基于能量守恒方程和铜基电池量热法,提出了一种计算热失控气体燃烧对热失控传播贡献占比的方法。选取商用18650型电池,利用自主设计搭建的热失控气体释能测算实验平台获取计算所需参数。实验结果表明：第1节电池热失控气体燃烧释放的能量在第2节电池热失控所需能量中占比达到5.42%,使第2节电池自产热增加了42%,热失控时间提前了29%。研究结果有助于进一步探索热失控传播过程中的能量传递效率,为单元层级和系统层级的电池安全设计提供理论支持。     

Infrared observation of the nucleus of comet Halley with the IKS instrument from the VEGA 1 probe

The Infrared thermal emission of the nucleus has been observed by the imaging channel of the infrared spectrometer IKS during the fly-by of Comet Halley by the VEGA 1 probe. An emissive region with a temperature in excess of 300 K has been detected. The results are compatible with a simplified model assuming a spherical nucleus covered by an insulating black material.     

On the conditions for fluidisation in cometary mantles

In our current understanding, active cometary nuclei comprise a volatile-depleted outer crust covering a mixture of dust and ices. During each perihelion passage the thermal wave penetrates the crust and sublimates a portion of these ices, which then escape the nucleus, dragging with them dust particles that replenish the coma and dust tail. The flux of released gases is likely to vary as a complex function of solar distance, nucleus structure, spin rate, etc. It has been previously hypothesised that at some point a fluidised state could occur, in which the gas drag is approximately equal to the weight of overlying dust and ice grains. This state is well understood and used in industrial processes where extensive mixing of the gas and solid components is desired. The literature on fluidisation under reduced gravity and pressure conditions is here reviewed and published relations used to predict the conditions under which fluidisation could occur in the near-surface of a cometary nucleus.     

Cometary atmosphere (gas and dust)

There is important progress now in the identifications and measurements of primary (parent) molecules in the inner coma of Comet Halley. H₂O, CO₂ and CO are definitely in the list, CH and some complicate organic molecules are suspected. Gas production rate for water vapor is Q_H2O 10³⁰ s⁻¹. The bulk of data doesn't contradict to the Whipple model of nucleus (with clathrate modification). Pronounced spatial structure of gaseous flow in the coma was observed, but in general measured properties of neutral gas in the coma of Comet Halley are not very different from predicted. Situation for dust is different. In situ dust measurements show that size spectrum and optical properties of particles in coma are substantively declining from predicted on the base of groundbased photometry. However there are discrepancies between Vega and Giotto dust counter data. Dust in the inner coma didn't prevent the succesful imaging of nucleus by TV on Vega 1 and 2.     

A proportional counter/image intensifier system for the detection of low energy X-rays

Proportional counters (PC's) and gas scintillation proportional counters (GSPC's) currently used for detection of low energy X-rays provide information on event position and energy. Although at 1.5 keV PC's have good position resolution (～ 200 μm FWHM) they have relatively poor energy resolution (～ 40% FWHM). Conversely GSPC's have reasonable energy resolution (～ 20% FWHM), but poor spatial resolution (～ 1mm FWHM).We describe a scheme in which a parallel plate PC with a transparent anode deposited on a fibre optic substrate has been used. This allows the light emitted by electron avalanches caused by X-ray events in the PC to be detected by an image intensifier with electronic readout. Using this scheme spatial resolution better than that of conventional PC's should be attainable. In addition avalanches induced by single electrons can be resolved through observation of the time structure of the light flash. Using the ability to count the number of primary electrons created by each X-ray event, it is shown that energy resolution can be achieved which is comparable to that of the GSPC.     

Oriented platform for the VEGA-probe to the Halley comet,position detection,working program

Two deep-space probes of the Venera type for the encounter with Halley's comet are being prepared in the Intercosmos program. 150 kg of scientific equipment will be onboard each sonde, including two TV cameras and two spectrometers. These instruments need precise orientation during the fly-by of the comet. For this purpose a stabilised platform is being developed in Czechoslovakia which will be installed onboard both probes and will be able to point to the target with precision 5 minutes of arc and maximum angular velocity 1°/second. A system of position detectors and the working program during the start and the fly-by are described.     

Thermal model and thermo-mechanical stresses in cometary nuclei

Spherically symmetric radial temperature profiles of cometary nuclei have been determined numerically (and for simplified models analytically) in dependence on the orbital position of the periodic comet Halley. These temperature fields in the nucleus are connected with thermal stress fields which have been calculated with the assumption of elastic properties of cometary matter. The remarkable result is the possible existence of stresses, strong enough to cause internal cracking of the nucleus and break-ups of the cometary surface. This may be essential understanding normal cometary activity as well as outbursts and splits.     

Extrasolar space exploration by a solar sail accelerated via thermal desorption of coating

For extrasolar space exploration it might be very convenient to take advantage of space environmental effects such as solar radiation heating to accelerate a solar sail coated by materials that undergo thermal desorption at a particular temperature. Thermal desorption can provide additional thrust as heating liberates atoms, embedded on the surface of the solar sail. We are considering orbital dynamics of a solar sail coated with materials that undergo thermal desorption at a specific temperature, as a result of heating by solar radiation at a particular heliocentric distance, and focus on two scenarios that only differ in the way the sail approaches the Sun. For each scenario once the perihelion is reached, the sail coat undergoes thermal desorption. When the desorption process ends, the sail then escapes the Solar System having the conventional acceleration due to solar radiation pressure. We study the dependence of a cruise speed of a solar sail on perihelion of the orbit where the solar sail is deployed. The following scenarios are considered and analyzed: (1) Hohmann transfer plus thermal desorption. In this scenario the sail would be carried as a payload to the perihelion with a conventional propulsion system by a Hohmann transfer from Earth’s orbit to an orbit very close to the Sun and then be deployed. Our calculations show that the cruise speed of the solar sail varies from 173?km/s to 325?km/s that corresponds to perihelion 0.3?AU and 0.1 AU, respectively. (2) Elliptical transfer plus Slingshot plus thermal desorption. In this scenario the transfer occurs from Earth’s orbit to Jupiter’s orbit; then a Jupiter’s fly-by leads to the orbit close to the Sun, where the sail is deployed and thermal desorption comes active. In this case the cruise speed of the solar sail varies from 187?km/s to 331?km/s depending on the perihelion of the orbit. Our study analyses and compares the different scenarios in which thermal desorption comes beside traditional propulsion systems for extrasolar space exploration.