Activities of the COSPAR Panel on Exploration supporting the Global Exploration Roadmap

The Global Exploration Roadmap (GER) is driven by several goals and objectives that include space science, the search for life as well as preparatory science activities to enable human space exploration. The Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), through its Commissions and Panels provides an international forum that supports and promotes space exploration worldwide. COSPAR's Panel on Exploration (PEX) investigates a stepwise approach of preparatory research on Earth and in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) to facilitate a future global space exploration program. We summarize recent activities and workshops of PEX in support of the GER.     

Space as a strategic vision for Turkey and its people

Turkey entered the 21st century making increasing efforts towards rapid economic and technological development, social change and renewal of its infrastructure. Naturally this process places a heavy load on the current system and it affects every section of society at various rates. Turkey must get involved in new areas in order to continue its development progress by minimizing such effects. One of these new areas is space, which has become an important tool for protecting and improving civilization and is a strategic expression of Turkey's future. This article outlines Turkey's potential in space activities, considers the current situation of space activities in the country and shows their evolution over 20 years with a view to identifying promising developments. Turkey is actively determining the necessary policies to allow future generations to compete in the international arena in the long term. But Turkey must also clarify what sort of space organization model it wants to pursue.     

How far – if at all – should the USA cooperate with China in space?

China has engaged in a steady, long-standing effort to build and strengthen its space capabilities, achieving progressively more ambitious milestones and staking its claim as a major space power. It is also increasingly engaging in cooperative efforts. A number of issues must be weighed, however, before the USA should consider any collaboration with it. These include the essentially military nature of China’s space program, the fact that China’s intentions in space and decision-making process are far from ‘transparent’, and the way it uses its space activities to pursue foreign policy goals. While the latter could be useful in, e.g., reducing tensions on the Korean peninsular through a space-services-for-giving-up-missiles tradeoff, and while there is scope for collaboration in space science missions, there are no compelling reasons for the USA to pursue cooperation in human spaceflight with China.     

Technology foresight in practice: A proposal for Turkish space vision

We are witnessing a fundamental change in the perception of space-related issues. Once a symbol of technological competition between opposing political systems, space activities have become a part of everyday life and an indispensable means for states to achieve economic, scientific, political and social goals. This Report addresses the space activities of Turkey, a latecomer to space challenge but a country rapidly progressing in this field. In this context, major space-related policies and projects are first discussed. The current status of the Turkish space industry is then defined through SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats). The analysis is informed by a May 2012 workshop was held in Turkey at the Defense Sciences Institute, which brought together a range of interested actors to discuss Turkey's space policy. The workshop was followed up six months later with a survey of a larger group of participants. This Report lays out the findings of these two events, articulating the strengths and weaknesses for Turkey's space aspirations, and also a proposal for the country's future space ambitions. Strategies and policies that will be supportive in achieving the proposed space vision are also introduced.     

ESA strategic planning for space exploration

The European Space Agency (ESA) is pursuing an independent strategic planning process for consolidating a destination driven (LEO, Moon, Mars) space exploration strategy. ESA's space exploration strategy is driven by the goals to maximise knowledge gain and to contribute to economic growth. International cooperation is a key pillar of ESA's strategy as it is considered both, an enabler for achieving common goals and a benefit, opening new perspective for addressing future challenges. The achievement of ESA's space exploration strategy is enabled through international partnerships. The interagency coordination process conducted within the framework of the International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG) plays an important role in laying the foundations for future partnerships. It has achieved so far the development of a common vision for space exploration, a common plan for implementing the vision in the form of the Global Exploration Roadmap, as well as a common approach for articulating the value of global space exploration. ESA has been a strong promoter and supporter of the interagency coordination process conducted within ISECG and thanks to its unique expertise in international cooperation the Agency has contributed to its success.     

Public funding of space activities: a case of semantics and misdirection

The semantic ambiguity of the word ‘space’ causes problems for both the funding of space activities and the determining of space policies. The historical practice of lumping all space activities together, to be funded by a single budgetary line, is inappropriate to the range of such activities and for the economic and strategic interests at stake: it has direct consequences for the priorities governments want to make, and can pervert the directions industry is trying to go in. While continued government support for space is imperative, given the strategic, national-development nature of many of its applications, new ways must be found of allocating it a budget that take account of the diversity of the areas in which it plays a role.     

Space Phoenix

The US federal government is collaborating with a non-profit university consortium and its commercial project managers to develop the Space Shuttle fleet's expended external fuel tanks for scientific and commercial uses in space. Nearly a half dozen years in evolution, the Space Phoenix Program is a private-sector civil space programme with the long-term goal of opening the Earth's space to as many people, organizations and activities as possible, as soon as possible, and at the lowest cost to them as possible. In time it is expected to be a major focus for private-sector activities in space. This report describes how it will work.     

Japan's future in space

Japan's Consultative Committee on Long Term Policy was established within the Space Activities Commission to consider how the country's space activities should proceed. The Committee was asked to take a long-term viewpoint, considering the rapid changes in both domestic and overseas space activities. This report is an edited version (and unofficial translation) of the Committee's report, published in May 1987. It outlines the significance of space activities for Japan, considers how they have developed during this century, forecasts development after the year 2000, and presents proposals for the execution of Japan's space development.     

NASA's integrated space transportation plan

Improvements in the safety, reliability and affordability of current and future space transportation systems must be achieved if NASA is to perform its mission and if the U.S. space industry is to reach its full potential. In response to Presidential Policy in 1994, NASA, working with our industrial partners, initiated several efforts including the X-33, X-34, X-37 and Advanced Space Transportation programs with the goal of demonstrating the technologies that could enable these goals. We have learned that emerging technologies will enable the needed advancements but that more development along multiple, competing paths is needed. We have learned that developing requirements diligently and in partnership with industry will allow us to better converge with commercial capabilities. We have learned that commercial markets are not growing as fast as projected earlier, but there are still possibilities in the near-term to pursue alternate paths that can make access to space more robust. The goal of transitioning NASA's space transportation needs to commercial launch vehicles remains the key aim of our efforts and will require additional investment to reduce business and technical risks to acceptable levels.     

Enacting Japan's Basic Law for space activities: Revolution or evolution?

In June 2012, four whole years after the Basic Space Law mandated a fundamental reorientation of Japan's space policy objectives towards applications, including national security and the use of space as a diplomatic tool, legislation was passed by Japan's Diet that alters who controls Japan's space policy. The new legislation involves a curious compromise between competing aims and objectives of different parts of Japan's central bureaucracy. But it also clearly represents a break from the past and potentially a decisive step toward new directions for Japan's governmental space efforts. Contextualizing the deeper and immediate background, this article seeks to elucidate just how deep, or indeed shallow, some of the forthcoming changes are.     

Recent space developments in South Korea

Despite some setbacks – notably an indigenous launch failure – progress is being made in South Korea's space program and its public image has been boosted by the first flight of a Korean astronaut to the ISS. This report provides an update on recent and forthcoming space activities in the country and on its current cooperative arrangements.     

A selective space strategy for small countries

This article analyses the patterns and trends of small countries' participation in various forms of international space cooperation. The background to formulating a national space programme is discussed, together with considerations in linking national needs, stage of development, resources and capacity with those of the international community. The need for a selective national strategy on space activities is demonstrated: efforts must be concentrated around a few reasonably selected goals, provisions for acquiring information must be maintained, and the space programme must prepare the country for rapid development in all other fields of space research and applications, if world trends require. A brief examination of Bulgaria's space activity is made. A series of advanced space investigations have been undertaken in that country, and space technology transfer and spin-offs have resulted, with valuable benefits for the society and the economy.     

Role of the current young generation within the space exploration sector

The space sector gathers together people from a variety of fields who work in the industry on different levels and with different expertise. What is often forgotten is the impact and role of the current young generation. Their engagement is of great importance as undeniably today's young ‘space generation’ will be defining the direction of future space exploration.Today's vision of future human and robotic space exploration has been set out in the Global Exploration Roadmap (GER). This focuses on sustainable, affordable and productive long-term goals. The strategy begins with the International Space Station (ISS) and then expands human presence into the solar system, including a human mission to Mars.This paper presents a general overview of the role of today's youth within the space exploration sector and the challenges to overcome. To complete this perspective, we present results from a survey made among students and young professionals about their levels of awareness of the GER. The respondents presented their opinion about current aspects of the GER and prioritised the GER's objectives. It is hoped that the paper will bring a new perspective into the GER and a contribution to the current GER strategy.     

UNCOPUOS 50 years on: Assessing current dynamics and exploring its future role

UNCOPUOS recently celebrated its 50th anniversary and has a range of achievements to show for it. But it is now very different – in both type and number of members – from the organization established at the start of the Cold War and needs to consider its future direction. An obvious topic to pursue is the long-term sustainability (LTS) of space activities, which, after some false starts, has now been adopted. One Working, and Four Expert, Groups have been set up to examine different aspects of the subject, though care must be taken to ensure that these are properly integrated into a multidisciplinary framework. Despite valid objections that LTS could be used to deny access to space to latecomers to the club, it is important to proceed with LTS while taking account of delegations' concerns.     

The eagle eyes the dragon in space—A critique

China's space policy and its purpose have become an increasingly contentious subject. This paper critically examines the claims, made by Ashley Tellis, among others, that China has a space strategy decided and coordinated by the Chinese military and dedicated to defeating superior US power locally in an asymmetrical war, and that it is this military space strategy that drives China's single-minded pursuit of space science and technology and the development of China's space programme. To do so, the paper conducts two investigations: into the declining role of the Chinese military in China's foreign and security policy making and its limited influence in formulating China's grand strategy; and the other into the contingent history of China's two space programs, Shenzhou and Chang'e, which have largely been driven by civilian scientist communities, rather than the military. In so doing, I argue that the claims of China's ‘military space strategy’ are over-imaginative and serve a particular political purpose. The social imaginary of a threatening China produced by the US strategic gaze at China in space, I further argue, has dangerous policy implications.     

The National Space Biomedical Research Institute's education and public outreach program: Working toward a global 21st century space exploration society

Space Exploration educators worldwide are confronting challenges and embracing opportunities to prepare students for the global 21st century workforce. The National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI), established in 1997 through a NASA competition, is a 12-university consortium dedicated to space life science research and education. NSBRI's Education and Public Outreach Program (EPOP) is advancing the Institute's mission by responding to global educational challenges through activities that: provide teacher professional development; develop curricula that teach students to communicate with their peers across the globe; provide women and minority US populations with greater access to, and awareness of science careers; and promote international science education partnerships.A recent National Research Council (NRC) Space Studies Board Report, America's Future in Space: Aligning the Civil Program with National Needs, acknowledges that “a capable workforce for the 21st century is a key strategic objective for the US space program… (and that) US problems requiring best efforts to understand and resolve…are global in nature and must be addressed through mutual worldwide action”. [1] This sentiment has gained new momentum through a recent National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) report, which recommends that the life of the International Space Station be extended beyond the planned 2016 termination. [2] The two principles of globalization and ISS utility have elevated NSBRI EPOP efforts to design and disseminate science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) educational materials that prepare students for full participation in a globalized, high technology society; promote and provide teacher professional development; create research opportunities for women and underserved populations; and build international educational partnerships.This paper describes select EPOP projects and makes the case for using innovative, emerging information technologies to transfer space exploration knowledge to students, engage educators from across the globe in discourse about science curricula, and foster multimedia collaborations that inform citizens about the benefits of space exploration for life on Earth. Special references are made to educational activities conducted at professional meetings in Austria, Canada, France, China, Greece, Italy, Russia, Scotland and Spain.     

Future Italian space policy

Italy initiated space activities in the late 1950s; however, it was only in the 1980s that these activities grew to the point where Italy became a major spacefaring nation. In 1988, the Italian Space Agency was created with the goal of coordinating all Italian space activities, but severe administrative and organizational difficulties hampered its operation. This viewpoint proposes a new space policy-making process, in view of the increased effectiveness that space activities can bring to various departments of the Italian government and to allow it to better exploit investments in space activities.     

The future of space medicine.

In November 2000, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and its partners in the International Space Station (ISS) ushered in a new era of space flight: permanent human presence in low-Earth orbit. As the culmination of the last four decades of human space flight activities. the ISS focuses our attention on what we have learned to date. and what still must be learned before we can embark on future exploration endeavors. Space medicine has been a primary part of our past success in human space flight, and will continue to play a critical role in future ventures. To prepare for the day when crews may leave low-Earth orbit for long-duration exploratory missions, space medicine practitioners must develop a thorough understanding of the effects of microgravity on the human body, as well as ways to limit or prevent them. In order to gain a complete understanding and create the tools and technologies needed to enable successful exploration. space medicine will become even more of a highly collaborative discipline. Future missions will require the partnership of physicians, biomedical scientists, engineers, and mission planners. This paper will examine the future of space medicine as it relates to human space exploration: what is necessary to keep a crew alive in space, how we do it today, how we will accomplish this in the future, and how the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) plans to achieve future goals.     

China's rise in space and US policy responses: A collision course?

China's opaque politics present particular difficulties for US space policy. Heavily invested in and reliant on space, the US will closely monitor China's burgeoning space program. New space powers, and the increasing use of space generally will further create significant challenges, most particularly to the reliance of states on space for national security. In order to maintain its space capabilities, the US will have to decide between securing this via multilateral and co-operative uses of space, or through trying to maintain a level of dominance over other space actors. While very gradually shifting away from the latter position, Washington's policy choices are complicated by the lack of a clear Chinese space strategy. While the Chinese space program, and its wider intentions, are opaque, tenure of a more cooperative approach course might prove fragile.     

What is the state of play in European governance of space policy?

The European way of doing space differs from others in that, while carried out cooperatively, there is no fully integrated space policy. This is inevitable in a non-sovereign entity whose members do not have the same priorities in many vital sectors such as energy, industry and political economy, and has nevertheless produced some excellent programmes. But, against the background of the worldwide increase in space players and capabilities, Europe's current lack of ambition and foresight, and its limited ability to respond to external developments are worrying. It needs to be more open about its governance and financing plans, something missing from the latest European Commission communication. In these difficult economic times a complete rethinking of future space plans would enable Europe to prioritise on the strategic niches which must be preserved, while proper investigation of the management failures of the flagship programmes might help avoid such difficulties in the future.