The Dynamic Quasiperpendicular Shock: Cluster Discoveries

The physics of collisionless shocks is a very broad topic which has been studied for more than five decades. However, there are a number of important issues which remain unresolved. The energy repartition amongst particle populations in quasiperpendicular shocks is a multi-scale process related to the spatial and temporal structure of the electromagnetic fields within the shock layer. The most important processes take place in the close vicinity of the major magnetic transition or ramp region. The distribution of electromagnetic fields in this region determines the characteristics of ion reflection and thus defines the conditions for ion heating and energy dissipation for supercritical shocks and also the region where an important part of electron heating takes place. In other words, the ramp region determines the main characteristics of energy repartition. All these processes are crucially dependent upon the characteristic spatial scales of the ramp and foot region provided that the shock is stationary. The process of shock formation consists of the steepening of a large amplitude nonlinear wave. At some point in its evolution the steepening is arrested by processes occurring within the shock transition. From the earliest studies of collisionless shocks these processes were identified as nonlinearity, dissipation, and dispersion. Their relative role determines the scales of electric and magnetic fields, and so control the characteristics of processes such as ion reflection, electron heating and particle acceleration. The determination of the scales of the electric and magnetic field is one of the key issues in the physics of collisionless shocks. Moreover, it is well known that under certain conditions shocks manifest a nonstationary dynamic behaviour called reformation. It was suggested that the transition from stationary to nonstationary quasiperiodic dynamics is related to gradients, e.g. scales of the ramp region and its associated whistler waves that form a precursor wave train. This implies that the ramp region should be considered as the source of these waves. All these questions have been studied making use observations from the Cluster satellites. The Cluster project continues to provide a unique viewpoint from which to study the scales of shocks. During its lifetime the inter-satellite distance between the Cluster satellites has varied from 100 km to 10000 km allowing scientists to use the data best adapted for the given scientific objective. The purpose of this review is to address a subset of unresolved problems in collisionless shock physics from experimental point of view making use multi-point observations onboard Cluster satellites. The problems we address are determination of scales of fields and of a scale of electron heating, identification of energy source of precursor wave train, an estimate of the role of anomalous resistivity in energy dissipation process by means of measuring short scale wave fields, and direct observation of reformation process during one single shock front crossing.     

Selected Problems in Collisionless-Shock Physics

The physics of collisionless shocks is a very broad topic, which has been well studied for many decades. However, there are a number of important issues which remain unresolved. Moreover, there have been new findings, which cast doubt on well-established ideas. The purpose of this review is to address a subset of unresolved problems in collisionless shock physics from a theoretical and/or numerical modeling point of view. The topics which are addressed are: the nonstationarity of the shock front, the heating and dynamics of electrons through the shock layer, particle diffusion in turbulent electric and magnetic fields, particle acceleration, and the interaction of pickup ions with collisionless shocks.     

Experimental study of flare-generated collisionless interplanetary shock wave propagation

This paper presents a review of the general properties of flare-generated collisionless interplanetary shock wave propagation, determined from multiple spacecraft plasma and magnetic field observations and by means of interplanetary scintillation of radio sources.An invited paper presented at STIP Workshop on Shock Waves in the Solar Corona and Interplanetary Space, 15–19 June, 1980, Smolenice, Czechoslovakia.     

The interplanetary medium and its interaction with the Earth's magnetosphere

This paper reviews the principal results of direct measurements of the plasma and magnetic field by spacecraft close to the Earth (within the heliocentric distance range 0.7–1.5 AU). The paper gives an interpretation of the results for periods of decrease, minimum and increase of the solar activity. The following problems are discussed: the interplanetary plasma (chemical composition, density, solar wind flow speed, temperature, temporal and spatial variation of these parameters), the interplanetary magnetic field (intensity, direction, fluctuations and its origin), some derived parameters characterizing the physical condition of the interplanetary medium; the quasi-stationary sector structure and its connection with solar and terrestrial phenomena; the magnetohydrodynamic discontinuities in the interplanetary medium (tangential discontinuities and collisionless shock waves); the solar magnetoplasma interaction with the geomagnetic field (the collisionless bow shock wave, the magnetosheath, the magnetopause, the Earth's magnetic tail, the internal magnetosphere characteristics), the connection between the geomagnetic activity and the interplanetary medium and magnetosphere parameters; peculiarities in behaviour of the interplanetary medium and magnetosphere during geomagnetic storms; energetic aspects of the geomagnetic storms.     

Radio emission from quasi-parallel shock waves in the corona

Shock waves in the solar corona manifest themselves in type II bursts in dynamic radio spectra. Recently, short large amplitude magnetic structures (SLAMS) have been observed in the vicinity of the quasi-parallel region of Earth's bow shock as an example of a collisionless shock wave in space plasmas. SLAMS are able to accelerate electrons to high energies by shock drift acceleration. Assuming that SLAMS also appear in the vicinity of super-critical, quasi-parallel shocks in the corona, electrons can also be accelerated at quasi-parallel shocks and, subsequently, generate radio waves manifesting in solar type II radio bursts.     

Cosmological Shock Waves

Large-scale structure formation, accretion and merging processes, AGN activity produce cosmological gas shocks. The shocks convert a fraction of the energy of gravitationally accelerated flows to internal energy of the gas. Being the main gas-heating agent, cosmological shocks could amplify magnetic fields and accelerate energetic particles via the multi-fluid plasma relaxation processes. We first discuss the basic properties of standard single-fluid shocks. Cosmological plasma shocks are expected to be collisionless. We then review the plasma processes responsible for the microscopic structure of collisionless shocks. A tiny fraction of the particles crossing the shock is injected into the non-thermal energetic component that could get a substantial part of the ram pressure power dissipated at the shock. The energetic particles penetrate deep into the shock upstream producing an extended shock precursor. Scaling relations for postshock ion temperature and entropy as functions of shock velocity in strong collisionless multi-fluid shocks are discussed. We show that the multi-fluid nature of collisionless shocks results in excessive gas compression, energetic particle acceleration, precursor gas heating, magnetic field amplification and non-thermal emission. Multi-fluid shocks provide a reduced gas entropy production and could also modify the observable thermodynamic scaling relations for clusters of galaxies.     

Collisionless Shocks in Partly Ionized Plasma with Cosmic Rays: Microphysics of Non-thermal Components

In this review we discuss some observational aspects and theoretical models of astrophysical collisionless shocks in partly ionized plasma with the presence of non-thermal components. A specific feature of fast strong collisionless shocks is their ability to accelerate energetic particles that can modify the shock upstream flow and form the shock precursors. We discuss the effects of energetic particle acceleration and associated magnetic field amplification and decay in the extended shock precursors on the line and continuum multi-wavelength emission spectra of the shocks. Both Balmer-type and radiative astrophysical shocks are discussed in connection to supernova remnants interacting with partially neutral clouds. Quantitative models described in the review predict a number of observable line-like emission features that can be used to reveal the physical state of the matter in the shock precursors and the character of nonthermal processes in the shocks. Implications of recent progress of gamma-ray observations of supernova remnants in molecular clouds are highlighted.     

一种基于聚类分析的二维激波模式识别算法

在激波捕捉求解器计算的可压缩无黏流场基础上,提出了一种探测并识别二维激波干扰模式的新算法,从3个层面详细介绍了该算法的实施流程。首先,采用基于当地流场参数设计的传统激波探测方法,辨识出激波附近的一系列网格单元;其次,通过经典的K-means聚类算法将这些激波单元划分成许多簇,并根据簇的相邻信息定义每个簇的类别;最后,设定相关准则对某些紧邻的簇进行合并,进而确定各个激波干扰点的位置,记录各条激波分支所对应的簇,采用Bézier曲线拟合算法分别对其聚类中心进行拟合以获取更加光滑的激波线。数值试验表明,该算法不受网格类型的限制,不仅可以保证最终拟合的激波线具有较高的位置精度,还可以清晰地识别出流场中多激波干扰的模式,同时对分析非定常流场中激波的运动与演化过程也提供了一种有效的可视化手段。     

一种形状可控的激波增强管道型线设计新方法

激波管所产生的非定常运动激波,若强度和形状能够按照一定的设计要求进行可控条件下的调节,将可望为燃料点火燃烧试验等提供具有独到优势的研究手段。基于激波动力学理论,针对激波管中所产生的平面运动激波,通过设计特定的上下壁面收缩型线,使初始平面运动激波,经收缩段（包括光滑凹形曲线段、斜直线段和光滑凸形曲线段）的变形和强度增加,再以平面波面形状进入较小截面直管段的连续转变过渡,得到了强度增加的平面激波。进一步对所设计的典型型线分别采用数值计算和试验的方法,考核分析激波运动过程中的形状变化,验证了理论方法的可靠性。在此基础上,分析了型线设计的关键参数对激波增强幅度的影响,结果表明,相对于传统激波管方法,本文中所提出的收缩截面方法能更显著地增加平面激波强度;另外,还考察了初始入射激波马赫数对壁面型线和运动激波波面形状的影响,结果表明,对于较强的初始入射激波来说,壁面型线对入射激波强度依赖较小,也就是说,当实际入射激波马赫数即使稍偏离设计状态时,仍然能得到近乎完美的平面形状增强激波。     

爆轰波-激波迎面作用后的稳定波系

本文为对当量比乙炔氧气混合气体中爆轰波与激波正面对撞产生稳定波系的实验和理论研究.实验主要以高速扫描摄影获取两波对撞的x-t纹影图,一维理论分析则基于三种热完全的组分求解两波对撞的稳定解并探寻它们的规律.实验发现透射波系包括一道激波和爆轰波,以及紧随爆轰波后的稀疏波区,这种波系情况与一维理论分析中CJ解一致.透射CJ爆轰与人射爆轰相比马赫数降低,而相对波前来流的传播速度有轻微提高,但在实验室坐标下其速度显著降低.透射波系受初始压强影响不大;初始温度提高使得爆轰波速度降低,而透射激波速度增加;对波系起实质影响作用的是入射激波强度,激波越强,则整个透射流场呈现偏向激波的趋势;理论分析还指出,稀疏波区的出现不可避免,当激波强度趋于声波时稀疏波区趋于消失,激波越强则疏波区趋于扩大.     

高马赫数来流条件下斜激波与流向涡对相互作用

针对斜激波入射流向涡对形成的复杂流动干扰现象,在来流马赫数6条件下,利用后掠斜坡式涡流发生器生成流向涡对,采用数值模拟结合激波风洞实验,研究了斜激波与流向涡对相互作用引起的激波变形和旋涡演变。结果表明,斜激波与流向涡对相互作用的剧烈程度大致分为强、中、弱三种。在强相互作用下,激波面向上游凸起的程度最剧烈,呈现类“T”字型特征,其对称面处接近于一道正激波,波后出现回流区和局部流动滞止,使得流向涡对发生破碎;在中等相互作用下,对称面处存在局部正激波,但没有出现回流区;在弱相互作用下,不再出现局部正激波。进一步地分析发现,斜激波与流向涡对相互作用产生的流向涡对破碎现象,不符合经典的激波作用下单个流向涡破碎理论的预测。采用流向涡对对称面处的气流参数,对经典的流向涡破碎理论进行修正后,能够预测本文流向涡对在斜激波作用下是否发生破碎。本文为掌握激波作用下流向涡对破碎现象的规律,提供了重要参考。     

Hybrid simulation codes with application to shocks and upstream waves

Hybrid codes in which part of the plasma is represented as particles and the rest as a fluid are discussed. In the past few years such codes with particle ions and massless, fluid electrons have been applied to space plasmas, especially to collisionless shocks. All of these simulation codes are one-dimensional and similar in structure, except for how the field equations are solved. We describe in detail the various approaches that are used (resistive Ohm's law, predictor-corrector, Hamiltonian) and compare results from the various codes with examples taken from collisionless shocks and low frequency wave phenomena upstream of shocks.     

Steady, pseudo-steady and unsteady shock wave reflections

The reflection of oblique shock waves has been the subject of numerous experimental, analytical and numerical studies in the past five decades. In the past six years three reviews have been published on various aspects of shock wave phenomena by Griffith (1981), Bazhenova et al. (1984) and Hornung (1985). However, these reviews were not devoted completely to shock wave reflection phenomena and as such they are more limited in scope than the present review. Furthermore, the developments since these reviews were written suggested a need for an up-to-date comprehensive review. The present review is aimed at describing in detail the entire shock wave reflection phenomenon from a phenomenological point of view. It is divided into three parts. The first is dedicated to the reflection in pseudo-steady flows, e.g., shock tube experiments over straight wedges, the second concentrates on steady flows, e.g., wind tunnel experiments, and the third describes the phenomenon in truly unsteady flows, e.g., shock tube experiment over non-straight wedges, spherical blast wave reflections, etc. In each of these flow patterns, unsolved problems are discussed and future research needs are identified. In order to keep this review within an acceptable size it was decided not to include details of numerical studies. Whenever possible the nomenclature is the one suggested by Ben-Dor and Dewey (1985).     

Self-sustained shock oscillations on airfoils at transonic speeds

Self-sustained shock wave oscillations on airfoils at transonic flow conditions are associated with the phenomenon of buffeting. The physical mechanisms of the periodic shock motion are not yet fully understood even though experiments performed over fifty years ago have demonstrated the presence of oscillatory shock waves on the airfoil surfaces at high subsonic speeds. The unsteady pressure fluctuations generated by the low-frequency large-amplitude shock motions are highly undesirable from the structural integrity and aircraft maneuverability point of view. For modern supercritical wing design with thick profiles, the shock-induced fluctuations are particularly severe and methods to reduce the shock wave amplitudes to lower values or even to delay the oscillations to higher Mach numbers or incidence angles will result in expanding the buffet boundary of the airfoil. This review begins with a recapitulation of the classical work on shock-induced bubble separation and trailing edge separation of a turbulent boundary layer. The characteristics of the unsteady pressure fluctuations are used to classify the types of shock-boundary layer interaction. The various modes of shock wave motion for different flow conditions and airfoil configurations are described. The buffet boundaries obtained using the standard trailing edge pressure divergence technique and an alternative approach of measuring the divergence of normal fluctuating forces are compared to show the equivalence. The mechanisms of self-sustained shock oscillations are discussed for symmetrical circular-arc airfoils at zero incidence and for supercritical airfoils at high incidence angles with fully separated flows. The properties of disturbances in the wake are examined from linear stability analysis of two-dimensional compressible flows. The advances in high-speed computing make predictions of buffeting flows possible. Navier–Stokes solvers and approximate boundary layer-inviscid flow interaction methods are shown to give good correlation of frequencies and other unsteady flow characteristics with experiments. Finally, passive and active methods of shock oscillation control show promising results in delaying buffet onset to higher Mach numbers or incidence angles, thus enhancing the transonic performance of airfoils.     

激波冲击下Air/SF6斜界面不稳定性实验研究

激波在不同密度介质上的交互作用在可压缩湍流上具有重要的基础价值。激波在界面上的作用会引起Richtmyer-Meshkov不稳定性。激波不正规折射时,流场存在更多复杂的涡。研究马赫数为1.23、1.41的激波在初始倾角β=60°的Air/SF6界面上非正规折射的情况。入射激波的切向冲击和法向冲击的相互作用,在界面处产生涡,折射波在壁面发生马赫反射。利用阴影显示技术,给出了界面演化和混合的过程。     

运动激波自适应网格算法中权函数问题的研究

变分原理的自适应网格技术被应用到运动激波问题的求解上,在解的大梯度区自动加密网格,从而非常成功地算出了激波。通过分析发现权函数选择和取值对自适应网格技术至关重要     

Computer modeling of test particle acceleration at oblique shocks

We review the basic techniques and results of numerical codes used to model the acceleration of charged particles at oblique, fast-mode, collisionless shocks. The emphasis is upon models in which accelerated particles (ions) are treated as test particles, and particle dynamics is calculated by numerically integrating along exact phase-space orbits. We first review the case where ions are sufficiently energetic so that the shock can be approximated by a planar discontinuity, and where the electromagnetic fields on both sides of the shock are defined at the outset of each computer run. When the fields are uniform and static, particles are accelerated by the scatter-free drift acceleration process at a single shock encounter. We review the characteristics of scatter-free drift acceleration by considering how an incident particle distribution is modified by interacting with a shock. Next we discuss drift acceleration when magnetic fluctuations are introduced on both sides of the shock, and compare these results with those obtained under scatter-free conditions. We describe the modeling of multiple shock encounters, discuss specific applications, and compare the model predictions with theory. Finally, we review some recent numerical simulations that illustrate the importance of shock structure to both the ion injection process and to the acceleration of ions to high energies at quasi-perpendicular shocks.     

MHD Flow Control of Oblique Shock Waves Around Ramps in Low-temperature Supersonic Flows

This article is devoted to experimental study on the control of the oblique shock wave around the ramp in a low-temperature supersonic flow by means of the magnetohydrodynamic(MHD) flow control technique. The purpose of the experiments is to take advantage of MHD interaction to weaken the oblique shock wave strength by changing the boundary flow characteristics around the ramp. Plasma columns are generated by pulsed direct current(DC) discharge, the magnetic fields are generated by Nd-Fe-B rare-earth permanent magnets and the oblique shock waves in supersonic flow are generated by the ramp. The Lorentz body force effect of MHD interaction on the plasma-induced airflow velocity is verified through particle image velocimetry(PIV) measurements. The experimental results from the supersonic wind tunnel indicate that the MHD flow control can drastically change the flow characteristics of the airflow around the ramp and decrease the ratio of the Pitot pressure after shock wave to that before it by up to 19. 66%, which leads to the decline in oblique shock wave strength. The oblique shock waves in front of the ramp move upstream by the action of the Lorentz body force. The discharge characteristics are analyzed and the MHD interaction time and consumed energy are determined with the help of the pulsed DC discharge images. The interaction parameter corresponding to the boundary layer velocity can reach 1. 3 from the momentum conservation equation. The velocity of the plasma column in the magnetic field is much faster than that in the absence of magnetic field force. The plasma can strike the neutral gas molecules to transfer momentum and accelerate the flow around the ramp.     

Ion Acceleration at the Earth’s Bow Shock

The Earth’s bow shock is the most studied example of a collisionless shock in the solar system. It is also widely used to model or predict the behaviour at other astrophysical shock systems. Spacecraft observations, theoretical modelling and numerical simulations have led to a detailed understanding of the bow shock structure, the spatial organization of the components making up the shock interaction system, as well as fundamental shock processes such as particle heating and acceleration. In this paper we review the observations of accelerated ions at and upstream of the terrestrial bow shock and discuss the models and theories used to explain them. We describe the global morphology of the quasi-perpendicular and quasi-parallel shock regions and the foreshock. The acceleration processes for field-aligned beams and diffuse ion distribution types are discussed with connection to foreshock morphology and shock structure. The different possible mechanisms for extracting solar wind ions into the acceleration processes are also described. Despite several decades of study, there still remain some unsolved problems concerning ion acceleration at the bow shock, and we summarize these challenges.     

轴向入射激波反射聚焦的实验和数值模拟

为研究两级脉冲爆震发动机凹腔入口宽度对第2级凹腔中激波聚焦过程的影响,设计轴向入射激波聚焦的实验系统,对不同入口宽度下激波反射聚焦的过程进行了实验和数值模拟。采用纹影系统拍摄凹腔中的流场结构,并测量了凹腔顶点处的动态压力。采用保持强稳定性（SSP）的Runge Kutta格式、weighed essential non oscillation（WENO)格式和块结构网格自适应加密（SAMR）算法对激波反射、衍射和聚焦的过程进行了数值模拟,数值模拟结果和实验吻合较好。通过分析比较相同马赫数激波通过不同宽度凹腔的反射聚焦过程,发现较小宽度凹腔入口下激波反射和聚焦较强,顶点的压力峰值较高,激波聚焦诱导的射流较强。