The USSR and space power plants

The American idea of a Solar Power Satellite was proposed for the first time in 1968 by Peter Glaser in a famous article in Science. This concept has since been the subject of many theoretical studies, and of some limited practical studies (mainly about microwave energy transmission) in the USA with funding from NASA and the Department of Energy (DOE). Some evaluations have been also conducted in Western Europe, particularly within the European Space Agency (ESA). But very little is generally known about the attitude towards SPS of the second main space power: the USSR. Soviet literature on SPS is much less abundant, but it does exist. Very interesting articles on the subject have been written by leading Soviet space experts. Some of these articles are analysed here, and the practical meanings of the ex[ressed opinions, generally very favourable, are investigated in view of the growing Soviet space capability.     

Space and Soviet military planning

Most of the recent discussions concerning Soviet space activities focus on the new systems and emerging technologies, particularly those with military application. How the military capabilities of these systems and technologies will be used is equally important. Their employment will be guided by current Soviet thinking and policy concerning military actions in space. This policy has its origins in Soviet military doctrine which emphasizes offensive systems. Although the Soviet space programme denies having any military objectives, it is guided by a historical link with the Soviet military and directed by decisions made within the framework of Soviet doctrine. Additional insights into Soviet thinking concerning the militarization of space can be gained from recent treaties which the Soviets have signed concerning military space activities.     

Changing patterns of international cooperation in space: The Soviet factor

The new Soviet glasnost regarding international cooperation in space will clearly be one of several factors affecting traditional patterns of cooperation in the future. This article examines how the Soviet posture towards cooperation in international space ventures has changed, why the changes have occurred, and the probable consequences of those changes on traditional patterns of international cooperation in space.     

The USSR's prudent space policy

Soviet space policy has long been viewed in the West as militaristic and aimed at achieving superiority, a situation which is abetted by the secrecy in which Soviet space activities are shrouded. This article argues, however, that Soviet space policy is essentially prudent and conservative, and based on exploiting existing technology to the maximum. Whilst it has provided the USSR with an impressive space potential, it does not mean that the USSR is ahead of the USA in space. Nevertheless, in the future the USSR is likely to undertake more international cooperation and offer commercial launch services.     

苏/俄交会对接技术研究

苏/俄交会对接技术的研发,最初是为20世纪60年代初苏联月球使命服务的,后来主要用于空间站的运输使命。因此,最初的＂联盟＂飞船逐步演变发展为联盟号载人飞船系列与进步号货运飞船系列。联盟号和进步号飞船应用＂指针＂或＂航向＂交会雷达系统,基本采用自动轨道交会方法。对应急运作,联盟号航天员可使用手控器;对于不载人的进步号使命...     

Russia’s space program: continued turmoil

This article examines recent difficulties in the Russian space program through the analytic lens of the Russian political and economic reform effort. It argues that Russia’s problems go beyond a lack of financing. Instead, lack of investment and ‘brain drain’ have caused deep infrastructural problems which would take years of restored funding and political priority to fix. Russia’s continued activity in space stems almost solely from inertia left over from the Soviet period, and from funding provided by foreign partners anxious to exploit the cheap, sturdy elements of that Soviet legacy.     

Power—industry orbital complexes of the 21st century

Soviet scientist, Leonid Leskov, discusses the state of the art and future projections of the Soviet and global industrialization of space. International cooperation for peaceful use of space are required if the huge benefits of industrialization, such as solar power stations, are to be realized.     

Columbia and Challenger: organizational failure at NASA

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)—as the global leader in all areas of spaceflight and space science—is a unique organization in terms of size, mission, constraints, complexity and motivations. NASA's flagship endeavor—human spaceflight—is extremely risky and one of the most complicated tasks undertaken by man. It is well accepted that the tragic destruction of the Space Shuttle Challenger on 28 January 1986 was the result of organizational failure. The surprising disintegration of the Space Shuttle Columbia in February 2003—nearly 17 years to the day after Challenger—was a shocking reminder of how seemingly innocuous details play important roles in risky systems and organizations. NASA as an organization has changed considerably over the 42 years of its existence. If it is serious about minimizing failure and promoting its mission, perhaps the most intense period of organizational change lies in its immediate future. This paper outlines some of the critical features of NASA's organization and organizational change, namely path dependence and “normalization of deviance”. Subsequently, it reviews the rationale behind calling the Challenger tragedy an organizational failure. Finally, it argues that the recent Columbia accident displays characteristics of organizational failure and proposes recommendations for the future.     

苏联(俄罗斯)载人航天器的发展史实

介绍了苏联（俄罗斯）各种载人航天器的研制、试验和使用情况。     

前苏联卫星遥感技术概况及其应用

该文介绍前苏联航天遥感系统的概况及其应用。     

The Soviet-Russian space suits a historical overview of the 1960's

The development of protective suits for space use started with the Vostok-suit SK-1, first used by Yu. Gagarin on April 12, 1961, and then used on all subsequent Vostok-flights. The technical background for the design of these suits was the work on full pressure protective suits for military pilots and stratospheric flights in the 1930's through 50's. The Soviet-Russian space programme contains a large number of 'firsts', and one of the most well known is the first EVA by Leonov in 1965. This event is also the starting point for a long series of space suit development for Extravehicular Activities over the last 35 years. The next step to come was the transfer in void space of crew members between the two spacecraft Soyuz 4 and 5 in 1969. As has later become known this was an essential element in the planned Soviet lunar exploration programme, which in itself required a new space suit. After the termination of the lunar programme in 1972, the space suit development concentrated on suits applicable to zero-gravity work around the manned space stations Salyut 6, Salyut 7 and MIR. These suits have become known as the ORLAN-family of suits, and an advanced version of this suit (ORLAN-M) will be used on the International Space Station together with the American EMU. This paper covers the space suit development in the Soviet Union in the 1960's and the experience used from the pre-space era.     

Soviet year in space, 1989

The euphoria surrounding the maiden voyage of the Buran space shuttle seemed to evaporate in 1989, and the Soviet space programme entered a critical period of re-evaluation and self-criticism. Setbacks dogged the Mir, Phobos and other programmes, though there did not appear to be a launch failure throughout the year. Public debate was dominated by economic issues, though useful figures are hard to obtain.     

空间无损检测技术评述

随着载人航天和深空探测任务的不断推进,空间无损检测技术成为确保飞行器长期在轨安全、可靠运行的重要手段。由于空间环境条件与地面差异大,以及特殊的活动限制,使空间采用的无损检测方法与技术要求具有一定的特殊性。从20世纪80年代开始,美国、苏联等航天先进大国就开始探索在空间实施无损检测的必要性及可行方法,并开发了一些检测装置。文章对空间无损检测技术的发展状况和应用情况进行论述,并对未来技术发展方向作出展望。     

US Military space policy 1945–92

This article uses space power theory to analyse the military space policy of the United States during the Cold War period up to the demise of the Soviet Union. It examines the consensus that emerged during this period which sought to prevent the weaponization of space. This consensus was called into question during the latter period with the announcement of the Strategic Defence Initiative and its subsequent orientation to Global Protection Against Limited Strikes system.     

Future for CIS space industry

The following is the executive summary of Volume 1 of Euroconsult's four volume study, Space Industries and Markets in Russia and Other Countries of the Former Soviet Union. The material reproduced covers space policy and industry in CIS countries, providing a transversal view of CIS space activities and organizations. Generic problems across all fields of applications are analysed; the final focus is on trade with foreign countries. The other volumes cover prospects for satellite communications in the CIS to 2000; prospects for Earth observation satellite systems in Russia and Ukraine to 2000; and prospects for space transportation systems in the CIS to 2000. Information on the whole — some 650 pages — may be obtained from Pauline Byrne at Euroconsult, 71 Boulevard Richard Lenoir, 75011 Paris, France.     

关于苏/俄航天服中文译名的建议

在中文文献中,同一苏/俄航天服俄文名称有多个中文译名,极易引起混淆与误解。为此,短文提出统一(或约定)苏/俄航天服中文译名的建议,可供使用者参考。     

Ukrainian national space law from an international perspective

As one of the three former Soviet republics engaged in space activities, the Ukraine has had to formulate new national space legislation as a means of demonstrating a responsible attitude to the international security system, of harmonising its legislation with that of its international political and economic partners and of creating clear guidelines for investors. This article presents the background to the formation of Ukrainian space law, describes some of the new laws enacted and discusses these within the context of international space law. Particular attention is paid to the legal regulation of commercial activities, to dual-use issues and to the effect of international cooperation on Ukrainian space law development.     

US and Soviet planetary exploration The next step is Mars, together

Soviet General Secretary Gorbachev has proposed a joint US-Soviet programme to explore the planet Mars. The authors argue that there is considerable advantage to be gained from such a programme for both countries and for all nations on Earth. They trace the history of the US and Soviet space programmes and of cooperation between the two nations, focusing particularly on activities relating to Mars. Robotic Mars exploration is already technically possible and could take place in the 1990s, and a first step towards manned exploration could be the writing of a development and flight plan aiming for the first decade of the 21st century.     

Suited crewmember productivity

Analysis of the extravehicular activity (EVA) sortie experience gained in the former Soviet Union and physiologic hygienic aspect of space suit design and development shows that crewmember productivity is related to the following main factors: -space suit microclimate (gas composition, pressure and temperature); -limitation of motion activity and perception, imposed by the space suit; -good crewmember training in the ground training program; -level of crewmember general physical performance capabilities in connection with mission duration and intervals between sorties; -individual EVA experience (with accumulation) at which workmanship improves, while metabolism, physical and emotional stress decreases; -concrete EVA duration and work rate; -EVA bioengineering, including selection of tools, work station, EVA technology and mechanization.     

Arms control and disarmament in space: the rough road to Vienna 1984: Part I

This article examines the international legal and diplomatic questions relating to arms control and disarmament, focusing on space-based activities. These relate importantly to the development of anti-satellite satellites (ASATs) and ballistic missile defence systems (BMDs). Part I of the article examines the goal of ‘peaceful uses’ of outer space as elaborated in national policies and in international fora, the debate that has has taken place at the international level over the meaning and definition of peaceful purposes, legal manoeuvres, particularly in the UN, and US responses, and recent Soviet initiatives relating to space militarization. Part II will appear in the next issue, and will consider the US Presidential-Congressional dialogue on these questions and recent Presidential initiatives.