A normal space power? Understanding ‘security’ in Japan's space policy discourse

With the enactment of its ‘Basic Space Law’ in 2008, a significant shift occurred in Japan's space policy away from a narrowly circumscribed interpretation of the concept of space for ‘peaceful purposes’ to a broad understanding of space for ‘security’. Viewed in a global context, Japanese space policy appears symptomatic of a broadened and more malleable understanding of space for security purposes, as already advocated by several other leading spacefaring powers, and proponents of this understanding of space for security argue that this is consistent with international standards and the expectations of a ‘normal’ space power. By attempting to redefine understandings of ‘peace’ and ‘security’, however, the Basic Space Law and subsequent direction of Japanese space policy raise complex and ongoing issues over the interpretation of Japan's ‘Peace Constitution’. This article reviews policy and academic discussions of the recent evolution of Japanese space policy in this respect, arguing that greater emphasis on ‘security’ – understood in a deliberately broad sense in policy terms – has been key to articulating and justifying the reformulation and redirection of Japanese space policy, but that this also brings with it room for ambiguity over the exact nature of Japan's space ambitions at both national and regional levels.     

Federal tax incentives and financing for the reusable launch vehicle

Financing a very large new space transportation system is a major venture. It requires an initial investment of many billions of dollars and will be expected to perform successfully during its lifetime of at least twenty-five years. In the past, space systems of this magnitude have been funded, owned and operated by the government. Today, as the responsibility for opening and maintaining space systems is expected to shift from government to industry leadership, the reusable launch vehicle (RLV) presents the private sector with the challenge of finding ways of financing and building a system that will prove to be a successful private venture. The government, recognizing that it is a major customer of the RLV and that new technology must be developed for the RLV to work and to adequately reduce the cost of access to space, will fund some Initial technology development as well as provide some incentives for a private operator. This paper shows that using the current tax system's corporate investment benefits, coupled with a favorable debt financing arrangement, a profitable privately owned RLV system Is within the realm of possibility.     

Managing foreign participation in government-funded applied space research and product development

Using the example of the USA, this article examines the economics of foreign participation in applied R&D space projects, with an emphasis on those with the goal of commercializing technology. Following an overview of the arguments within applied high-tech research in general — fear of subsidizing other countries economies and jeopardizing national prestige; benefits from nationally unavailable skills, reducing government costs and increasing domestic incentives for innovation — the authors consider specific characteristics of markets for space technology in the light of these arguments. They conclude with a discussion of policy options, such as the use of licenses or levy of royalties, to preserve the virtues of foreign competition while addressing concerns about ‘underwriting’ foreign competitors.     

Space policy for late comer countries: A case study of South Korea

Korea’s space development program was created almost 40 years behind those of the advanced countries but it has nevertheless made remarkable progress. Korean space development has been focused on technology catch-up, where commercialization and growth of industrial competitiveness are important rationales. However, the program has several problems, including: lack of a space equipment manufacturing industry, total system companies in the space manufacturing industry and communication between industry and researchers, and much concentration of projects and initiatives in the Korean Aerospace Research Institute (KARI). This study analyzes the problem by comparing space agencies and programs in Korea and other countries, particularly Japan and the USA. It is shown that the role of a national laboratory is critical in space industry development and argued that KARI should make greater efforts to promote the Korean space industry by encouraging technology transfer, sharing equipment and communication between companies. For successful space development, the main organization – usually the national research institute – should change its role from a research-only laboratory to manager and supporter of space development and industry. Such a move would invigorate Korea’s space industry and allow it to catch up with countries with a similar environment.     

Space debris and the need for space traffic control

This report summarises the presentations which took place at the ‘Space Traffic Control – Is the Space Debris Problem Solvable?’ conference hosted by the Royal Aeronautical Society on the 2nd July 2013. The conference sought to promote discussion over methods to deal with the issue of space debris in particular and speakers included representatives from the European Space Agency, the United Kingdom Space Agency, practitioners and academia. Themes which emerged during the conference included the urgency of the problem of space debris, the need for short-term and long-term solutions, the necessity for the development and implementation of space debris remediation technologies to complement existing mitigation efforts and, last but not least, the wider applications of space traffic control. Regarding the sub-title of the conference, ‘is the space debris problem solvable?’, it would appear from the presentations that while there is the potential for future management of the issue through debris remediation and harmonised mitigation efforts, no comprehensive solutions exist at the time of writing.     

The merger of two global commons: The need for new governance

The RUSI ‘Space and UK National Security’ conference was held in London on 2 October 2012 and, with the ‘Cyber Alliances: Strategy Partnerships in Cyber Space’ conference’ of 14–15 November 2012, brought together space and cyberspace specialists from more than 15 countries, across four continents. Alixe Buckerfield de la Roche reports on key points discussed across both conferences: (1) space as a shared domain, and building resilience; (2) governance; (3) national responses to space security; (4) partnerships and alliances, space situational awareness, space debris, and new initiatives; (5) the space–cyberspace merger; and (6) commercial and military sectors. Consensus on critical areas for further action emerged, and for that reason the conjunction of the two conferences was significant.     

International market for a reusable launch vehicle

A reusable launch vehicle could be developed early next century if the X-33 program is successful. Its development will be funded by industry, and the vehicle will be operated privately. A critical task is to assess the future market for such a vehicle. The total number of commercial payloads could range between 40 and 60 satellites per year, taking into account the market elasticity due to the launch price reduction. The RLV would face important competition from expendable launch vehicles. However, the RLV could capture two-thirds of this market, or 26–33 commercial payloads per year.     

Space tourism, private spaceflight and the law: Key aspects

The arrival of ‘space tourism’, or more appropriately ‘private spaceflight’, requires the law of outer space to change and adapt to this revolutionary development, as deriving precisely from the principled private participation in these activities. After defining the proper concepts, this paper discusses key legal aspects of authorisation and supervision, liability and registration, and how they reflect and impact on space tourism. Key legal aspects related to certification of craft, crew and passengers, while not yet much articulated at the international level will also be touched upon precisely in order to demonstrate that the law could well be driven first and foremost by national legislative interests on a domestic level, before (possibly) reaching the level of international law. The possible use of air law or even adventure tourism law to regulate relevant activities is also touched on.     

Talking space: The European Commission's changing frames in defining Galileo

This paper traces the way in which the European Commission has framed and reframed the issue of EU satellite navigation over 20 years. It investigates how the EU's agenda-setter has ‘talked about’ space policy, with a particular focus on Galileo, and how its own institutional discourse – as revealed in its communications throughout the agenda-setting stage of Galileo's ‘definition’ phase – evolved in the 1990s through the use of ‘frame sets’. In so doing, it illustrates the ways in which, over time, the EU's executive has ‘projected’ the issue of independent satellite navigation capabilities as being politically and economically desirable for Europe, and has sought to persuade decision makers of its cross-policy relevance and potential economic, social and security benefits. The article deconstructs official documents and engages in a close-up analysis of policy formulation, to identify nascent, evolving and mature frames in the definition of Galileo.     

CASH 2021: commercial access and space habitation

Issues about commercialization of space have been a growing concern in the past decade for the space community. This paper focuses on the work from a team of 51 students attending the Summer Session Program of the International Space University in Bremen, Germany. CASH 2021 (Commercial Access and Space Habitation) documents a plan that identifies commercial opportunities for space utilization that will extend human presence in space, and will chart the way forward for the next 20 years. The group selected four commercial sectors that show the most promise for the future: tourism, entertainment, space system service, assembly and debris removal, and research and development/production. The content of this document presents the results of their research. Historical activities in each of the commercial sectors are reviewed along with the current market situation. To provide a coherent background for future commercialization possibilities a scenario has been developed. This scenario includes a postulated upon ideal future and includes social, political and economic factors that may affect the space industry over the timeline of the study. The study also presents a roadmap, within the limited optimistic scenario developed, for the successful commercialization of space leading to future human presence in space. A broad range of commercially viable opportunities, not only within the current limits of the International Space Station, but also among the many new developments that are expected by 2021 are discussed.     

Human space exploration - A global trans-cultural quest

This Viewpoint is a slightly edited version of the ‘Statement by Space Explorers on Human Space Exploration’ produced in the wake of a workshop organized by the European Space Policy Institute and held in Vienna in May 2010. While noting the cultural differences in understandings of ‘exploration’ around the world, it also affirms the phenomenon as a globe-wide, human urge, emphasizing that only the physical presence of a human being can assure the full emotional quality of exploration. It calls upon decision makers to regard human space exploration as a global trans-cultural quest that should be supported and furthered.     

ISU design projects : A new instrument for shaping global space policy?

The author argues that students attending the International Space University (ISU) are becoming a force to be reckoned with in space activities thanks to their enthusiasm, dedication and their Design Projects tackling major technological issues. This article reviews previous projects, before focusing on those of 1993 and 1994, and analyses whether they can be seen as agents for change in space policy making. Key ‘selling points’ are the ‘students’ non-rigid approach to thinking and doing, their refusal to believe in the intractability of any problem and the appeal their novel coalition may have for political leaders.     

How far – if at all – should the USA cooperate with China in space?

China has engaged in a steady, long-standing effort to build and strengthen its space capabilities, achieving progressively more ambitious milestones and staking its claim as a major space power. It is also increasingly engaging in cooperative efforts. A number of issues must be weighed, however, before the USA should consider any collaboration with it. These include the essentially military nature of China’s space program, the fact that China’s intentions in space and decision-making process are far from ‘transparent’, and the way it uses its space activities to pursue foreign policy goals. While the latter could be useful in, e.g., reducing tensions on the Korean peninsular through a space-services-for-giving-up-missiles tradeoff, and while there is scope for collaboration in space science missions, there are no compelling reasons for the USA to pursue cooperation in human spaceflight with China.     

‘Did you see that,grandpa Mao?’ The prestige and propaganda rationales of the Chinese space program

China has seen a dramatic acceleration in the scope and capabilities of its space program in the past decade. This has been coupled with significantly increased global economic presence and influence as well as a steady improvement of its military capabilities. China's emergence as a major world actor has encouraged the emergence of a ‘China threat’ school of thought which interprets all Chinese policy, including its space program, as an evidence of a threatening challenge to US dominance in which the pursuit of a range of military space capabilities plays a central role. This article challenges that interpretation, arguing that China's space program is the product of a range of factors including powerful domestic political and developmental rationales and that the program is overwhelmingly driven by domestic rather than international considerations, particularly in terms of the use of the program for the purposes of enhancing prestige.     

The European Union as an emerging actor in space security?

With its draft Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities, the European Union has become visible in the debate on space security. In this paper we analyze this development, drawing on theoretical concepts in the scholarly debate about the ‘actorness’ of the EU. We find that the EU can be considered as an emerging actor in space security. However, the Code of Conduct initiative should be considered only a first step in this regard because it does not answer the question of whether the EU should pursue a policy of deterrence or arms control in space. We argue that the latter option would be better, because it is in line with the interests and values of the EU.     

The new international political and strategic context for space policies

For several years there has been substantial growth in the ‘nationalist’ nature of space programmes around the world, traditionally focused on unaligned useful space applications. It seems that China, India, in the future South Korea, Malaysia and others will set themselves objectives of a more political colouring symbolising national pride in their programmes. At the same time, some countries, like Iran, make no attempt to hide their plans to have their own space defence capabilities. The absolute pre-eminence of the USA, Russia and Europe is starting to fade. For emerging countries space resources are becoming an integral component of their strategic position or an asymmetrical capability aimed at weakening the credibility of advantages held by potential rivals. This article examines the new context and the role that various countries are playing in it. It is how space policies should be determined in order to understand their politico-strategic determinants and to highlight their characteristics. Nevertheless, the competitive spirit is not the only possible way. Permanent space infrastructures could also be organised globally, as ‘global public goods’, to contribute to answering questions related to major issues facing humanity.     

A new space vision for NASA—And for space entrepreneurs too?

Despite its scientific successes, NASA has over the past two decades lost its way, spending billions of dollars on transportation systems that have at bottom been failures. President Obama's cancellation of the costly and unwieldy Constellation program provides an opportunity for genuine reform of the agency and the US space program, through harnessing the innovatory and cost-effective power of commercial entrepreneurs. Examples of the kinds of project they might undertake – including solar power satellites, ‘space taxis’ and a space elevator – are discussed.     

Economics of space and the role of government

The author was a member of the House of Lords Select Committee on Science and Technology which conducted and enquiry into UK space policy. He argues that the industrial and technological case for space put to the Committee was insufficiently underpinned by reasoned argument. The article first examines the economic case forgovernment involvement in space. The role of economic analysis is examined; it is concluded that, except in the case of space applications, quantified analysis is usually misleading. In the light of this discussion, the technological case for space and the problems of commercialization are examined.     

Evaluating research for disruptive innovation in the space sector

Many governmental space activities need to be planned with a time horizon that extends beyond the comfort zone of reliable technology development assessments and predictions. In an environment of accelerating technological change, a methodological approach to addressing non-core technology trends and potentially disruptive, game-changing developments not yet linked to the space sector is increasingly important to complement efforts in core technology R&D planning.Various models and organisational setups aimed at fulfilling this purpose are in existence. These include, with varying levels of relevance to space, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Institute for Advanced Concepts (NIAC, operational form 1998 to 2007 and recently re-established), the Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency of the US Department of Defence, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Medialab, the early versions of Starlab, the Lockheed Skunk Works and the European Space Agency's Advanced Concepts Team.Some of these organisations have been reviewed and assessed individually, though systematic comparison of their methods, approaches and results have not been published. This may be due in part to the relatively sparse scientific literature on organisational parameters for enabling disruptive innovation as well as to the lack of commonly agreed indicators for the evaluation of their performance. Furthermore, innovation support systems in the space sector are organised differently than in traditional, open competitive markets, which serve as the basis for most scholarly literature on the organisation of innovation. The present paper is intended to advance and stimulate discussion on the organisation of disruptive innovation mechanisms specifically for the space sector. It uses the examples of the NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts and the ESA Advanced Concepts Team, analyses their respective approaches and compares their results, leading to the proposal of measures for the analysis and eventual evaluation of research for disruptive innovation in the space sector.     

国际商业航天市场与政策分析（英文）

At present, in the world the development of space is undergoing profound changes brought by commercial space, from the traditional government-driven development to the joint government and market promotion. This paper analyzes the current status of both foreign and domestic commercial space markets and policies, and then put forward the ideas and inspirations for the development of China's commercial space market.