Chaotic exchange of solid material between planetary systems: implications for lithopanspermia

Abstract We examined a low-energy mechanism for the transfer of meteoroids between two planetary systems embedded in a star cluster using quasi-parabolic orbits of minimal energy. Using Monte Carlo simulations, we found that the exchange of meteoroids could have been significantly more efficient than previously estimated. Our study is relevant to astrobiology, as it addresses whether life on Earth could have been transferred to other planetary systems in the Solar System's birth cluster and whether life on Earth could have been transferred from beyond the Solar System. In the Solar System, the timescale over which solid material was delivered to the region from where it could be transferred via this mechanism likely extended to several hundred million years (as indicated by the 3.8-4.0?Ga epoch of the Late Heavy Bombardment). This timescale could have overlapped with the lifetime of the Solar birth cluster (～100-500?Myr). Therefore, we conclude that lithopanspermia is an open possibility if life had an early start. Adopting parameters from the minimum mass solar nebula, considering a range of planetesimal size distributions derived from observations of asteroids and Kuiper Belt objects and theoretical coagulation models, and taking into account Oort Cloud formation models, we discerned that the expected number of bodies with mass>10?kg that could have been transferred between the Sun and its nearest cluster neighbor could be of the order of 10(14) to 3·10(16), with transfer timescales of tens of millions of years. We estimate that of the order of 3·10(8)·l (km) could potentially be life-bearing, where l is the depth of Earth's crust in kilometers that was ejected as the result of the early bombardment. Key Words: Extrasolar planets-Interplanetary dust-Interstellar meteorites-Lithopanspermia. Astrobiology 12, 754-774.     

Survival of rock-colonizing organisms after 1.5 years in outer space

Cryptoendolithic microbial communities and epilithic lichens have been considered as appropriate candidates for the scenario of lithopanspermia, which proposes a natural interplanetary exchange of organisms by means of rocks that have been impact ejected from their planet of origin. So far, the hardiness of these terrestrial organisms in the severe and hostile conditions of space has not been tested over extended periods of time. A first long-term (1.5 years) exposure experiment in space was performed with a variety of rock-colonizing eukaryotic organisms at the International Space Station on board the European EXPOSE-E facility. Organisms were selected that are especially adapted to cope with the environmental extremes of their natural habitats. It was found that some-but not all-of those most robust microbial communities from extremely hostile regions on Earth are also partially resistant to the even more hostile environment of outer space, including high vacuum, temperature fluctuation, the full spectrum of extraterrestrial solar electromagnetic radiation, and cosmic ionizing radiation. Although the reported experimental period of 1.5 years in space is not comparable with the time spans of thousands or millions of years believed to be required for lithopanspermia, our data provide first evidence of the differential hardiness of cryptoendolithic communities in space.     

Coronal mass ejections in July 2005 and an unusual heliospheric event

Using the events in July 2005 as an example, the causes and peculiarities of Forbush effects produced by solar sources remote from the central zone are discussed. The event in question differs from other effects observed at the periphery of interplanetary disturbances by strong variations in cosmic rays on the background of weak disturbances in the solar wind and magnetic field of the Earth. The cloud of magnetized plasma ejected from the Sun was large and fast, but it passed to the west from the Sun-Earth line. According to performed estimates, the mass of the ejected substance was close to the upper boundary of mass for coronal mass ejections (CMEs). Anomalous parameters and high modulation capability of the formed solar wind disturbance are explained, in particular, by the fact that it combined several CMEs and that the last fast disturbance was prepared by a series of impulsive events in the active region of the Sun. Usually, such a great mass is ejected directly after the main energy release in strong solar flares. In the given case, a powerful MHD disturbance occurred approximately half an hour after a maximum of hard X-ray burst under the conditions when gas pressure in the flare loops became close to magnetic pressure, which was just a premise of the largescale ejection.     

Spore UV and acceleration resistance of endolithic Bacillus pumilus and Bacillus subtilis isolates obtained from Sonoran desert basalt: implications for lithopanspermia

Bacterial spores have been used as model systems for studying the theory of interplanetary transport of life by natural processes such as asteroidal or cometary impacts (i.e., lithopanspermia). Because current spallation theory predicts that near-surface rocks are ideal candidates for planetary ejection and surface basalts are widely distributed throughout the rocky planets, we isolated spore-forming bacteria from the interior of near-subsurface basalt rocks collected in the Sonoran desert near Tucson, Arizona. Spores were found to inhabit basalt at very low concentrations (相似文献   

Exchange of meteorites (and life?) between stellar systems

It is now generally accepted that meteorite-size fragments of rock can be ejected from planetary bodies. Numerical studies of the orbital evolution of such planetary ejecta are consistent with the observed cosmic ray exposure times and infall rates of these meteorites. All of these numerical studies agree that a substantial fraction (up to one-third) of the ejecta from any planet in our Solar System is eventually thrown out of the Solar System during encounters with the giant planets Jupiter and Saturn. In this paper I examine the probability that such interstellar meteorites might be captured into a distant solar system and fall onto a terrestrial planet in that system within a given interval of time. The overall conclusion is that it is very unlikely that even a single meteorite originating on a terrestrial planet in our solar system has fallen onto a terrestrial planet in another stellar system, over the entire period of our Solar System's existence. Although viable microorganisms may be readily exchanged between planets in our solar system through the interplanetary transfer of meteoritic material, it seems that the origin of life on Earth must be sought within the confines of the Solar System, not abroad in the galaxy.     

Microbial rock inhabitants survive hypervelocity impacts on Mars-like host planets: first phase of lithopanspermia experimentally tested

The scenario of lithopanspermia describes the viable transport of microorganisms via meteorites. To test the first step of lithopanspermia, i.e., the impact ejection from a planet, systematic shock recovery experiments within a pressure range observed in martian meteorites (5-50 GPa) were performed with dry layers of microorganisms (spores of Bacillus subtilis, cells of the endolithic cyanobacterium Chroococcidiopsis, and thalli and ascocarps of the lichen Xanthoria elegans) sandwiched between gabbro discs (martian analogue rock). Actual shock pressures were determined by refractive index measurements and Raman spectroscopy, and shock temperature profiles were calculated. Pressure-effect curves were constructed for survival of B. subtilis spores and Chroococcidiopsis cells from the number of colony-forming units, and for vitality of the photobiont and mycobiont of Xanthoria elegans from confocal laser scanning microscopy after live/dead staining (FUN-I). A vital launch window for the transport of rock-colonizing microorganisms from a Mars-like planet was inferred, which encompasses shock pressures in the range of 5 to about 40 GPa for the bacterial endospores and the lichens, and a more limited shock pressure range for the cyanobacterium (from 5-10 GPa). The results support concepts of viable impact ejections from Mars-like planets and the possibility of reseeding early Earth after asteroid cataclysms.     

Mass determination of a small body in solar system by using a test-mass during a fly-by

The mass estimation of small bodies in the solar system—such as comets or minor planets—with an accuracy sufficient to get scientific information is difficult. The ground-based range-rate measurements are not practicable for bodies smaller than 100 km diameter.A proof mass, ejected from the spacecraft before the flyby and whose relative trajectory is determined with onboard measurements can give very good results even for small bodies. This paper presents the expected accuracy of mass determination depending on ballistic conditions (relative velocity and closest approach), type and accuracy of measurements (range, optical).     

Motion and transport of solar cosmic rays in heliospheric traps: The event on January 28–31, 2001

The results of studying the enhancement of solar cosmic ray fluxes on January 28?C31, 2001 in a wide energy range are presented using the ACE spacecraft data. A comparative analysis of temporal variations of the fluxes of charged particles and of the interplanetary medium parameters (interplanetary magnetic field and solar wind) has been performed on the basis of the ??reflection?? model of motion, accumulation, and modulation of cosmic rays. It is shown that a magnetic trap for solar cosmic rays was created by a plasma stream and flare ejection from an active region in the western part of the solar disk. Particles of low energies (<10 MeV) were captured inside the trap; the dispersion of distribution of particles with different energies inside the trap being determined by its complicated magnetic structure. The power-low dependence of the time of maximum for the flux of particles on their energy is found, and softer energy spectrum inside the trap is explained.     

不同内边界条件下SEP事件实例的集合数值模拟及其在SEP事件预报中的应用

太阳高能粒子（SEP）事件的定量数值预报是空间态势感知的重要方面之一。SEP事件主要来自于日冕物质抛射（CME）所驱动的激波扩散加速（DSA）。文章在三个有关模型的基础上,结合1 AU处卫星的太阳风观测参数和日冕仪的CME观测参数,建立了一套可用于预报SEP事件的数值方法。利用该方法对一次SEP实例进行数值模拟,并将模拟结果与GOES卫星观测结果进行比较。结果表明：数值模拟得到的＞10 MeV的高能粒子的通量和观测较为吻合,＞100 MeV的高能粒子的通量高于观测值。针对此事件进一步开展了不同CME抛射速度和不同内边界背景太阳风温度条件下的集合模拟试验,结果表明：CME抛射速度对SEP事件中高能粒子通量和能谱影响较大,而内边界背景太阳风温度的改变对于高能粒子通量和能谱的影响几乎可以忽略不计。     

Impact seeding and reseeding in the inner solar system

Assuming that asteroidal and cometary impacts onto Earth can liberate material containing viable microorganisms, we studied the subsequent distribution of the escaping impact ejecta throughout the inner Solar System on time scales of 30,000 years. Our calculations of the delivery rates of this terrestrial material to Mars and Venus, as well as back to Earth, indicate that transport to great heliocentric distances may occur in just a few years and that the departure speed is significant. This material would have been efficiently and quickly dispersed throughout the Solar System. Our study considers the fate of all the ejected mass (not just the slowly moving material), and tabulates impact rates onto Venus and Mars in addition to Earth itself. Expressed as a fraction of the ejected particles, roughly 0.1% and 0.001% of the ejecta particles would have reached Venus and Mars, respectively, in 30,000 years, making the biological seeding of those planets viable if the target planet supported a receptive environment at the time. In terms of possibly safeguarding terrestrial life by allowing its survival in space while our planet cools after a major killing thermal pulse, we show via our 30,000- year integrations that efficient return to Earth continues for this duration. Our calculations indicate that roughly 1% of the launched mass returns to Earth after a major impact regardless of the impactor speed; although a larger mass is ejected following impacts at higher speeds, a smaller fraction of these ejecta is returned. Early bacterial life on Earth could have been safeguarded from any purported impact-induced extinction by temporary refuge in space.     

Testing interplanetary transfer of bacteria between Earth and Mars as a result of natural impact phenomena and human spaceflight activities

Interplanetary transport of microbes between Earth and Mars can be envisioned to occur either naturally as a consequence of impacts (lithopanspermia) or as a result of human and robotic spaceflight. In either case, the considerations for modeling successful transfer of microbial life are similar. The probability of microbes surviving either natural or human-mediated transfer is a function of: the initial population size and composition (i.e., the bioload); survival of launch, transit through space, entry and deposition; and ability to survive and proliferate on the recipient planet. Modeling this process for testing lithopanspermia and for mitigation of forward and back contamination for planetary protection purposes calls for accurate simulation of all aspects of transfer.     

适用于无人集群的通感一体化测距技术研究

空天地一体化多接入和通感一体化融合将是6G（第六代移动通信系统）的核心关键能力,针对通信辅助感知时基于通信波形的一体化波形发展需求,在无人机集群接入网中提出一种SC-FDE（单载波频域均衡）通感一体化波形的组帧方法,以及采用4倍过采样和2倍过采样时的高精度机间组网测距方法,用于提升集群组网的协同定位能力。通过仿真分析该通信波形的测距性能,结果表明：两种测距方法统计性能可以在信噪比为10 dB时达到根均方误差为0.1 m,且2倍过采样信号测距时比采用4倍过采样计算方法的性能更接近理论门限值。     

Search for the OH (X(2)Pi) Meinel band emission in meteors as a tracer of mineral water in comets: detection of N(2)(+) (A-X)

We report the discovery of the N(2)(+) A-X Meinel band in the 780-840 nm meteor emission from two Leonid meteoroids that were ejected less than 1000 years ago by comet 55P/Tempel-Tuttle. Our analysis indicates that the N(2)(+) molecule is at least an order of magnitude less abundant than expected, possibly as a result of charge transfer reactions with meteoric metal atoms. This new band was found while searching for rovibrational transitions in the X(2)Pi electronic ground state of OH (the OH Meinel band), a potential tracer of water bound to minerals in cometary matter. The electronic A-X transition of OH has been identified in other Leonid meteors. We did not detect this OH Meinel band, which implies that the excited A state is not populated by thermal excitation but by a mechanism that directly produces OH in low vibrational levels of the excited A(2)Sigma state. Ultraviolet dissociation of atmospheric or meteoric water vapor is such a mechanism, as is the possible combustion of meteoric organics.     

Spherule beds 3.47-3.24 billion years old in the Barberton Greenstone Belt,South Africa: a record of large meteorite impacts and their influence on early crustal and biological evolution

Four layers, S1-S4, containing sand-sized spherical particles formed as a result of large meteorite impacts, occur in 3.47-3.24 Ga rocks of the Barberton Greenstone Belt, South Africa. Ir levels in S3 and S4 locally equal or exceed chondritic values but in other sections are at or only slightly above background. Most spherules are inferred to have formed by condensation of impact-produced rock vapor clouds, although some may represent ballistically ejected liquid droplets. Extreme Ir abundances and heterogeneity may reflect element fractionation during spherule formation, hydraulic fractionation during deposition, and/or diagenetic and metasomatic processes. Deposition of S1, S2, and S3 was widely influenced by waves and/or currents interpreted to represent impact-generated tsunamis, and S1 and S2 show multiple graded layers indicating the passage of two or more wave trains. These tsunamis may have promoted mixing within a globally stratified ocean, enriching surface waters in nutrients for biological communities. S2 and S3 mark the transition from the 300-million-year-long Onverwacht stage of predominantly basaltic and komatiitic volcanism to the late orogenic stage of greenstone belt evolution, suggesting that regional and possibly global tectonic reorganization resulted from these large impacts. These beds provide the oldest known direct record of terrestrial impacts and an opportunity to explore their influence on early life, crust, ocean, and atmosphere. The apparent presence of impact clusters at 3.26-3.24 Ga and approximately 2.65-2.5 Ga suggests either spikes in impact rates during the Archean or that the entire Archean was characterized by terrestrial impact rates above those currently estimated from the lunar cratering record.     

太阳高能粒子在行星际中的扩散过程

当太阳活动频繁,特别是有耀斑爆发或者日冕物质抛射驱动的激波时,经常能够观察到高能粒子(能量从几十keV到几十MeV)通量突然增加,这种由太阳活动产生的高能粒子事件被称为太阳高能粒子事件。文章研究了耀斑和日冕物质抛射产生的两类高能粒子事件,重点讨论了高能粒子横越磁力线的扩散对粒子在行星际空间传播过程中所起到的作用,给出了对于不同扩散系数条件的数值模拟结果。     

空间太阳能电站技术的可行性研究

简要介绍世界空间太阳能电站的太阳发电卫星／太阳能发电（ＳＰＳ／ＬＳＰ）系统两种设想及相关技术的可行性研究与发展情况。总体说，实现空间电站所需无线电能传输技术（ＷＰＴ）、太阳电池技术及空间技术已基本成熟，可望于下世纪初建立初步的空间太阳能发电系统。     

飞轮传感器的高斯混合模型故障检测方法

针对闭环控制的飞轮系统,本文采用一种基于高斯混合模型(GMM）的故障诊断方法检测飞轮的传感器故障。姿态机动的反作用飞轮是一个多工况系统。通过飞轮的历史观测数据建立飞轮的GMM模型,它用有限个高斯函数的加权组合来有效地拟合多工况的观测数据,利用基于贝叶斯推理的后验概率（BIP）指标计算新样本偏离GMM模型的程度,该指标能避免由于数据分类不确定而引起的误检测问题。仿真结果表明BIP指标不需要复杂的数学建模就能准确检测飞轮传感器故障。     

Sunspot dynamics are reflected in human physiology and pathophysiology

Periodic episodes of increased sunspot activity (solar electromagnetic storms) occur with 10-11 and 5-6 year periodicities and may be associated with measurable biological events. We investigated whether this sunspot periodicity characterized the incidence of Pap smear-determined cervical epithelial histopathologies and human physiologic functions. From January 1983 through December 2003, monthly averages were obtained for solar flux and sunspot numbers; six infectious, premalignant and malignant changes in the cervical epithelium from 1,182,421 consecutive, serially independent, screening Pap smears (59°9″N, 4°29″E); and six human physiologic functions of a healthy man (oral temperature, pulse, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, respiration, and peak expiratory flow), which were measured ～5 times daily during ～34,500 self-measurement sessions (44°56″N, 93°8″W). After determining that sunspot numbers and solar flux, which were not annually rhythmic, occurred with a prominent 10-year and a less-prominent 5.75-year periodicity during this 21-year study span, each biological data set was analyzed with the same curve-fitting procedures. All six annually rhythmic Pap smear-detected infectious, premalignant and malignant cervical epithelial pathologies showed strong 10-year and weaker 5.75-year cycles, as did all six self-measured, annually rhythmic, physiologic functions. The phases (maxima) for the six histopathologic findings and five of six physiologic measurements were very near, or within, the first two quarters following the 10-year solar maxima. These findings add to the growing evidence that solar magnetic storm periodicities are mirrored by cyclic phase-locked rhythms of similar period length or lengths in human physiology and pathophysiology.     

STP热光伏发电的方案设计与性能分析

结合STP (Solar thermal Propulsion)高温吸热芯的技术特点,采用二次分光膜,对STP热辐射光伏发电(TPV)系统进行了结构设计和性能计算。通过优化分析,得到使太阳电池工作温度在额定值附近的氢冷却剂入口参数和通道尺寸数据。计算结果表明,当吸热芯温度为2400K时,光伏电池组件的输出功率在50~100W之间;通过调节电池组件的串并联电池数量,可以获得期望的输出特性。结论为STP的热光伏发电系统的设计研究提供参考依据。
     

高压太阳电池阵静电放电产生脉冲信号的特性研究

研究高压太阳电池阵静电放电产生脉冲信号的特性,有助于深入了解太阳电池阵充放电形成机制。在试验中,利用电子枪模拟GEO空间带电环境,辐照太阳电池样品表面。利用电流探头CT-2、单极子天线和数字存储示波器测量静电放电所产生的脉冲电流、辐射电场并记录其波形。试验结果表明:太阳电池在静电放电过程中产生了脉冲宽度为几μs的瞬态电流,其峰值幅度为几A;辐射电场的脉冲信号持续时间几百ns至几个μs,其峰值幅度达数百V/m。脉冲信号的时域特征表现为脉冲群,其波形具有陡峭的前沿,能量分布的频率范围主要集中在0.1~50 MHz之间。最后根据上述研究对在轨静电放电测试仪的设计提出建议。