The Giotto mission to Halley''s comet

ESA's Giotto mission to Halley's comet is a fast flyby in March 1986, about four weeks after the comet's perihelion passage when it is most active. The scientific payload comprises 10 experiments with a total mass of about 60 kg: a camera for imaging the comet nucleus, three mass spectrometers for analysis of the elemental and isotopic composition of the cometary gas and dust environment, various dust impact detectors, a photopolarimeter for measurements of the coma brightness, and a set of plasma instruments for studies of the solar wind/comet interaction. In view of the high flyby velocity of 68 km/s the experiment active time is very short (only 4 hours) and all data are transmitted back to Earth in real time at a rate of 40 kbps. The Giotto spacecraft is spin-stabilised with a despun high gain parabolic dish antenna inclined at 44.3° to point at the Earth during the encounter while a specially designed dual-sheet bumper shield at the other end protects the spacecraft from being destroyed by hypervelocity dust impacts. The mission will probably end near the point of closest approach to the nucleus when the spacecraft attitude will be severely perturbed by impacting dust particles leading to a loss of the telecommunications link.     

空间飞行器碎片防护结构的简化设计

给出一种基于实验和理论分析的航天器碎片防护结构简化设计方法 ,该方法可用于进行大型空间飞行器碎片防护结构的方案选择和初步结构设计。利用空间碎片的工程环境模型和防护结构几何经验公式 ,采用“设计碎片”的概念 ,对防护结构进行几何结构设计和质量估算 ,并采用改进的防护性能验证算法进行空间碎片的风险评估。通过对惠式防护结构的计算 ,得到的计算结果基本符合实际要求。     

Dust modelling of fast-flyby missions: Implications of in situ measurements

Using the Divine approach to modelling of cometary dust distributions within the dust envelope, together with the Reference Model parameters established by the Comet Halley Environment Working Group, predicted flux and fluence values are presented for each of the Giotto Dust Impact Detection System (DIDSY) subsystems. Implications for returned DIDSY data is discussed with particular reference to mass-size distribution and particle fluence as a fuction of time. It is also shown that the first particle impact event recorded by any of the DIDSY subsystems is likely to be of sufficient mass to penetrate the front shield of the Giotto spacecraft.     

A European probe to comet Halley

A European probe to comet Halley is proposed. The probe's model payload consists of 8 scientific instruments, viz. neutral, ion and dust impact mass spectrometers, magnetometer, medium energy ion and electron analyzer, camera, dust impact detectors and plasma wave experiment. Fly-by of the comet Halley nucleus will take place on November 28th, 1985, at about 500 km miss distance. The main spacecraft serves as relay link to transmit the observed data to Earth. As probe, a modified ISEE 2 design is proposed. Because of the cometary dust hazard expected in the coma a heavy dust shield (27 kg) is required, consisting of a thin front sheet and a 3 layer rear sheet. The probe is spin-stabilized (12 rpm), has no active attitude and orbit control capability and uses battery power only to provide about 1000 Wh for a measuring phase. A despun antenna transmits up to 20 kbit/s, in X-band. The total probe mass is estimated at 250 kg. The 3 model development programme should start in mid 1981 with Phase B.     

基于缩放实验的Whipple结构撞击特性

针对航天器空间碎片防护问题,基于缩放实验方法,开展了7 km/s以上超高速碰撞仿真研究.建立了单板和Whipple防护结构的仿真模型,并对铝-铝撞击问题和镉-镉撞击问题进行了多工况仿真.通过实验结果与数值仿真的对比,表明了数值仿真技术的正确性,并从仿真角度验证了缩放实验方法的有效性.对缩放实验方法的适用性进行了仿真验证,结果表明该方法对弹丸形状适用性较好,对3～4 km/s以上撞击速度的适用性较好,但对Whipple防护结构后板存在一定误差.分析了Whipple结构后板的失效模式,提出了失效模式的不连续性导致了缩放实验方法的误差.最后通过数值仿真计算了Whipple结构7 km/s以上弹道极限特性,提出了失效模式的不连续性造成了在该速度段弹道极限曲线的分叉现象.     

Hypervelocity impact on the GIOTTO Halley Mission dust shield: Momentum exchange and measurement

The two layer dust shield on the GIOTTO Halley Mission is constructed in a meteoroid bumper configuration. The dust shield is instrumented so that parameters associated with the hypervelocity collision of cometary particles on the exposed surface can be determined. A multisensor detector array provides simultaneous sensing of the momentum exchange of particles impacting and subsequently penetrating the outer layer of the dust shield. Current knowledge of momentum exchange during hypervelocity impact relative to the GIOTTO Halley Mission and the dust shield experiment is reviewed. The sensors used for determination of momentum exchange exhibit a functional dependence on projectile velocity leading to an enhancement of the sensor signal as the relative impact velocity increases. The GIOTTO Mission provides a very unique opportunity to obtain hypervelocity momentum exchange information at a known impact velocity. Therefore, with the dust experiment, a determination of the velocity index for both momentum and multilayered penetration sensor is possible. Results of analysis of analytical and laboratory studies indicate that the velocity index for hypervelocity impact is approximately 2.0 at the 68 km/sec encounter impact velocity of the GIOTTO Mission. A clear determination of the size and mass distribution of the cometary dust near the comet will be possible from the in-situ measurement of the DIDSY GIOTTO experiment.     

Physical properties of cometary dust: Relation of DIDSY data to grain properties

The Dust Impact Detection System (DIDSY) for the Giotto Halley Mission consists of two types of sensors for the detection of cometary dust particles: two impact plasma sensors and five piezo-electric momentum sensors. One sensor of each type is covered by a penetration film. A 1 μm thick aluminum film covers an impact plasma sensor. One momentum sensor is mounted onto the rear shield behind the 1 mm front shield made from aluminum. The parameters measured are the total charge released upon impact and the amplitude of the acoustic signal generated by the impact. Both quantities depend on the mass and speed of the impacting particles. At the impact speed of 68 km/sec the mass of cometary dust particles can be determined in the mass range from 10⁻¹⁷ g to 10⁻³ g. From the difference in the countrates measured by the sensors with and without penetration film the average bulk density of dust particles of masses 10⁻¹⁴ g and 10⁻⁶ g can be determined. With appropriate calibration an accuracy of a factor of 2 for both the mass and density determination can be obtained.     

Impact induced plasma during a cometary fly-by

GIOTTO, the probe which is presently developed by the European Space Agency, will encounter comet Halley in March 1986 with a relative velocity of 69 km/s. The fore section of the surface will be submitted to the bombardment of dust grains and neutral molecules in the final phase of the mission, like that of an Earth orbiter during atmospheric re-entry. These particles have a kinetic energy of 24 eV per a.m.u.; they produce secondary ions and electrons which form a plasma cloud around the body and control the electric potential of its surface. This paper is a review of the work which has been performed on the subject by dedicated study groups; the purpose of their action was to gather information and produce new findings which might have an influence on the design of the spacecraft and help in the interpretation of the data collected by the scientific payload.

The effect of impact induced plasma may already be significant at 10⁵ km from the comet nucleus; at a distance of 1000 km the flux of ions and electrons produced by cometary dust and neutrals will possibly exceed that of the ambient plasma by more than three orders of magnitude. It is expected that the spacecraft surface potential will be positive and will reach at least a few tens of volts; coating the leading surface of the spacecraft with a thin layer of gold or silver will help reducing the emission of ions from neutral gas. Computer simulation models are used to predict the structure of the charged particle density distribution in the vicinity of the surface. Effects associated with the wake and differential charging are also discussed. The significance of these results is conditioned by the validity of the models and the largest source of uncertainty seems to be associated with the plasma generated by dust impact.     

Coma morphology and dust emission pattern of comet Halley

This contribution starts with a short overview on cometary dust modelling and then focuses on the application of coma modelling with respect to in-situ measurements of cometary dust and ground based observations. The fountain model, valid for the dynamics of small cometary dust particles, is discussed. Models using Keplarian theory for the motion of the dust particles are outlined and the ESOC coma model is presented. Some direct applications of this model to analyse the results of the recent spacecraft flybys of comet Halley, as dust flux profiles, particle ground tracks and envelope positions, are shown. To compare the model with ground-based astronomical observations, the utilization of the ESOC coma model for the generation of synthetic images is demonstrated and some future prospects of this technique are outlined.     

航天器表面污染物质沉积变化和控制因子评估

航天器进入空间环境以后,空间环境分子污染和颗粒污染形成了航天器表面污染层,从而对航天器的各技术分系统产生不同的负面影响.介绍了中外中轨道航天器表面污染物质沉积变化在轨探测结果,并对污染物质沉积量变化和控制因子做初步评估.结果表明,污染物质沉积量在航天器入轨初期的1~2年内受航天器自身出气物质量、放气速率、表面温度及所处的气流方向等因子所控制.初期沉积量大,正是受到航天器入轨后自身出气量大、放气速率较高的控制,同时迎风面比背风面沉积量大.入轨后期表面沉积量长期变化呈现出明显的降变或缓慢涨落,而且具有全向性特征,因此探讨了具有全向性影响能力的控制因子相关特性,其中高能粒子通量和太阳紫外辐射通量变化可能是主要控制因子.      

Why should the latitude of the observer be considered when modeling gradual proton events? An insight using the concept of cobpoint

The shape of flux profiles of gradual solar energetic particle (SEP) events depends on several not well-understood factors, such as the strength of the associated shock, the relative position of the observer in space with respect to the traveling shock, the existence of a background seed particle population, the interplanetary conditions for particle transport, as well as the particle energy. Here, we focus on two of these factors: the influence of the shock strength and the relative position of the observer. We performed a 3D simulation of the propagation of a coronal/interplanetary CME-driven shock in the framework of ideal MHD modeling. We analyze the passage of this shock by nine spacecraft located at ∼0.4 AU (Mercury’s orbit) and at different longitudes and latitudes. We study the evolution of the plasma conditions in the shock front region magnetically connected to each spacecraft, that is the region of the shock front scanned by the “cobpoint” (Heras et al., 1995), as the shock propagates away from the Sun. Particularly, we discuss the influence of the latitude of the observer on the injection rate of shock-accelerated particles and, hence, on the resulting proton flux profiles to be detected by each spacecraft.     

On the validity of the aluminum equivalent approximation in space radiation shielding applications

The origin of the aluminum equivalent shield approximation in space radiation analysis can be traced back to its roots in the early years of the NASA space programs (Mercury, Gemini and Apollo) wherein the primary radiobiological concern was the intense sources of ionizing radiation causing short term effects which was thought to jeopardize the safety of the crew and hence the mission. Herein, it is shown that the aluminum equivalent shield approximation, although reasonably well suited for that time period and to the application for which it was developed, is of questionable usefulness to the radiobiological concerns of routine space operations of the 21st century which will include long stays onboard the International Space Station (ISS) and perhaps the moon. This is especially true for a risk based protection system, as appears imminent for deep space exploration where the long-term effects of Galactic Cosmic Ray (GCR) exposure is of primary concern. The present analysis demonstrates that sufficiently large errors in the interior particle environment of a spacecraft result from the use of the aluminum equivalent approximation, and such approximations should be avoided in future astronaut risk estimates. In this study, the aluminum equivalent approximation is evaluated as a means for estimating the particle environment within a spacecraft structure induced by the GCR radiation field. For comparison, the two extremes of the GCR environment, the 1977 solar minimum and the 2001 solar maximum, are considered. These environments are coupled to the Langley Research Center (LaRC) deterministic ionized particle transport code High charge (Z) and Energy TRaNsport (HZETRN), which propagates the GCR spectra for elements with charges (Z) in the range 1 ? Z ? 28 (H–Ni) and secondary neutrons through selected target materials. The coupling of the GCR extremes to HZETRN allows for the examination of the induced environment within the interior of an idealized spacecraft as approximated by a spherical shell shield, and the effects of the aluminum equivalent approximation for a good polymeric shield material such as generic polyethylene (PE). The shield thickness is represented by a 25 g/cm² spherical shell. Although, one could imagine the progression to greater thickness, the current range will be sufficient to evaluate the qualitative usefulness of the aluminum equivalent approximation. Upon establishing the inaccuracies of the aluminum equivalent approximation through numerical simulations of the GCR radiation field attenuation for PE and aluminum equivalent PE spherical shells, we further present results for a limited set of commercially available, hydrogen rich, multifunctional polymeric constituents to assess the effect of the aluminum equivalent approximation on their radiation attenuation response as compared to the generic PE.     

蜂窝夹芯板超高速碰撞仿真

蜂窝夹芯板是一种多用于航天器的特殊结构,采用光滑粒子流体动力学算法(SP H)对蜂窝夹芯板进行超高速碰撞研究时主要存在2个问题:蜂窝芯的几何建模过程复杂;蜂 窝芯层非常薄,为保证仿真精度采用相等的粒子间距必然生成超过计算容忍的粒子数量.结 合参数化程序设计语言(APDL)、用户界面设计语言(UIDL)进行结构建模,编制了APDL生成蜂 窝芯的程序,采用UIDL将该程序集成到ANSYS交互式界面中,能够方便快捷的生成任意尺度 的正六边形蜂窝芯.针对此方法得到的模型,采用SPH单元与壳单元相结合的方法,其中蜂 窝芯采用壳单元,入射体、蜂窝夹芯板的前、后面板采用SPH单元,对蜂窝夹芯板进行了超 高速碰撞仿真研究.仿真结果与相关试验进行了对比,仿真得到的后板破口尺寸与试验比较 接近,证实了该方法适用于蜂窝夹芯板的超高速仿真.      

柱状弹丸撞击防护屏形成碎片云材料状态特性研究

微流星体及空间碎片的高速撞击威胁着长寿命、大尺寸航天器的安全运行，导致其严重的损伤和灾难性的失效。为精确估计微流星体及空间碎片高速撞击防护屏所产生碎片云对舱壁的损伤，必须确定碎片云中三种状态材料的特性，建立了碎片云特性分析模型，分别计算了柱状弹丸撞击防护屏所产生碎片云以及碎片云中弹丸和防护屏材料三种状态物质的质量分布。通过计算分析可见，弹丸以不同速度撞击防护屏所产生碎片云三种状态物质的质量分布是不同的，速度增大，液化和气化增强，对靶件的损伤小。而在速度小于7km/s时，碎片云以固体碎片的形式存在，对靶件的损伤大。     

Modeling of the very high velocity impact process with respect to in-situ ionization measurements

This overview deals with very high impact velocities, where complete vaporization of an impacting cosmic dust particle is to be expected upon expansion from the high pressure high temperature state behind the stopping shock (v > 15 km/s). The topics discussed are the mechanics and thermodynamics of compression, adiabatic release, equation of state and nonequilibrium states upon expansion. The case of very high particle porosity (ρ 1 g/cm³) and the case of very small dust masses (m < 10⁻¹⁷ g) are discussed from what one presently knows. The possibility of three body collisions in the expanding gas phase is discussed briefly. The effect of oblique impact is discussed with respect to its relevance to the ionization process. The numbers communicated are up to the highest “experimental” impact velocities (80 km/s, Halley mission). As one goes to lower impact velocities (20 < v < 30 km/s) there is still complete vaporization of the dust particle but ionization out of the bulk of the particle becomes low. Other than thermal processes may become important. Ideas are outlined to understand their physical nature.     

一种深空粒子采样返回探测器构型设想

以太阳风粒子、深空尘埃等为目标的采样返回探测任务是空间科学与深空探测研究的热点方向之一。对“星尘号”“起源号”两个典型采样返回探测器的构型进行了分析,并梳理了其主要构型特点。结合我国月地高速再入返回飞行器的构型特点,提出了一种深空粒子采样返回探测器构型的设想：总体构型由长方形主体和流线型返回器组成,主体构型适应于承载返回器和其他装器设备,返回器构型适应于样品收集和再入返回气动外形。设计方案采用了充气式采样器进行粒子收集,具有体积小、重量轻、折叠效率高、展开可靠、工程实施简单等特点,并采用了可重复收拢展开的太阳翼,能够适应收集不同类型深空粒子的需求。     

Comparative study of the dust emission of 19P/Borrelly (Deep space 1) and 1P/Halley

Images obtained by the Miniature Integrated Camera and Imaging Spectrometer (MICAS) experiment onboard the Deep Space 1 spacecraft which encountered comet 19P/Borrelly on September 22nd 2001 show a dust coma dominated by jets. In particular a major collimated dust jet on the sunward side of the nucleus was observed. Our approach to analyse these features is to integrate the observed intensity in concentric envelopes around the nucleus. The same procedures has been used on the Halley Multicolour Camera images of comet 1P/Halley acquired on March 14th 1986. We are able to show that at Borrelly the dust brightness dependence as a function of radial distance is different to that of Halley. At large distances both comets show constant values as the size of the concentric envelopes increases (as one would expect for force free radial outflow). For Halley the integral decreases as one gets closer to the nucleus. Borrelly shows opposite behaviour. The main cause for Halley's intensity distribution is either high optical thickness or particle fragmentation. For Borrelly, we have constructed a simple model of the brightness distribution near the nucleus. This indicates that the influence of deviations from point source geometry is insufficient to explain the observed steepening of the intensity profile close to the nucleus. Dust acceleration or fragmentation into submicron particles appear to be required. We also estimate the dust production rate of Borrelly with respect to Halley and compare their dust to gas ratios.     

基于离散粒子群算法的多飞行器在轨服务任务分配

为解决多约束条件下飞行器在轨服务任务分配问题,以在轨卫星群为研究对象,提出了一种基于离散粒子群算法的多服务飞行器的目标分配方法,综合分析目标飞行器价值、服务飞行器消耗以及能量时间消耗等3项关键指标因素,建立了在轨服务任务分配问题的数学模型。通过构建粒子与实际问题间的对应关系,设计了新的离散粒子群位置和速度更新公式求解任务分配问题。仿真结果表明:离散粒子群算法具有收敛速度快,寻优能力强等优点,能够有效地解决多约束条件下的服务飞行器协同任务分配问题。     

Interaction between a body and its environment during a cometary fly-by

The surface of a spacecraft is submitted to the bombardment of dust grains and neutral molecules during an atmospheric re-entry or a cometary fly-by. These particles create secondary ions and electrons which form a plasma cloud around the body and control the electric potential of its surface. Computer simulation models are used to predict the structure and dynamic behaviour of the charged particle density distribution for the cases of planar and cylindrical bodies. It is found that an ion and an electron layer form in the vicinity of the surface at distances of the order of the ion and electron Debye lengths, respectively. The potential of the surface is positive on the average and is a function of the electron mean kinetic energy. A positive potential barrier develops at the location of the ion layer and its height is governed by the sum of the electron and ion mean kinetic energies. The threat caused by this interaction to the spacecraft and its instrumentation is discussed and an in-situ observation of this phenomenon is proposed as a possible diagnostic technique of the environment.     

Implication of multiple dipolarization event near 9 RE for the physics of substorms

In 2001, 2002 and 2003, the Polar spacecraft probed the near equatorial plasma sheet at 9 R_E near local midnight. Using the magnetic field observations, the signatures at substorm onsets are studied. Close to the flux pile-up region, the Polar spacecraft readily detects the dipolarization front, especially for pseudo onsets. An event with two distinct onsets has been examined. The signatures are found to be consistent with the multiple-onset model suggested by Russell [Russell, C.T. How northward turnings of the IMF can lead to substorm expansion onsets. Geophys. Res. Lett. 27, 3257–3259, 2000] which is a modified Near-Earth Neutral Line (NENL) model. Another similar event is also examined showing the effects of different Interplanetary Magnetic Field (IMF) conditions upon substorms. Moreover, ground effects can be very weak compared to in situ observations, especially for pseudo onsets, because these signatures appear to be localized and not global.