Lunar oxygen: Economic benefit for transportation systems and in situ production by fluorination

The use of oxygen produced on the Moon—called “MOONLOX”—is considered as a propellant component for a reusable Earth-Moon transportation system consisting of an aeroassisted orbital transfer vehicle and a lunar bus for lunar descent/ascent. Conditions for economic benefit are discussed and the processing concept of a lunar oxygen plant based on fluorination is presented. It is shown that the necessary mass of supply from Earth for MOONLOX-production is an important parameter, which may not be neglected due to its strong influence on the economy. In the ideal case where no supplies from Earth are required a reduction of up to 50% in masses to be launched into low Earth orbit can be obtained for a typical lunar mission with use of MOONLOX compared to a reference scenario with Earth-derived propellant. Mass-saving decreases, however, significantly with increasing supply from Earth until a critical supply-rate is reached—measured in percentage of MOONLOX-mass produced and consumed—beyond which mass-saving and thus economically promising lunar oxygen production is no longer possible. This critical supply-rate depends on the scenario for MOONLOX-utilization and is much larger in the case of in situ use of MOONLOX on the lunar surface, e.g. as ascent propellant for the lunar bus, than in the case of export for complete refuelling of both space vehicles. The latter scenario therefore requires significantly more autonomy for MOONLOX-production. The reduction of masses to be transported into low Earth orbit and corresponding MOONLOX-consumption define for given specific Earth-to-LEO transportation costs an upper limit on MOONLOX-production costs beyond which economic benefit is not possible. Depending on the MOONLOX-utilization strategy this upper limit varies between 3000 and 55000 $/kg for current Earth-to-LEO transportation costs.     

Lunar exploration and development--a sustainable model

A long-term goal of space exploration is the development of a lunar settlement that will not only be largely self-sufficient but also contribute to the economy of the Earth-Moon system. Proposals for lunar mining and materials processing developments, as well as tourism-based applications, have appeared in the literature for many years. However, so great are the technical and financial difficulties associated with sustained lunar development that, more than 30 years after the end of the Apollo programme, there have been no practical advances towards this goal. While this may soon be remedied by a series of proposed unmanned orbiters, landers and rovers, the philosophy of lunar exploration and development remains the same as it has for decades: conquer, exploit, and ignore the consequences. By contrasting the well-recognised problems of Earth orbital debris and the barely recognised issue of intentional spacecraft impacts on the lunar surface, this paper illustrates the need for a new model for lunar exploration and development. This new paradigm would assign a value to the lunar environment and provide a balance between protection and exploitation, creating, in effect, a philosophy of sustainable development for the Moon. It is suggested that this new philosophy should be an integral part of any future strategy for lunar colonisation.     

Probabilistic assessment of radiation risk for astronauts in space missions

Accurate estimations of the health risks to astronauts due to space radiation exposure are necessary for future lunar and Mars missions. Space radiation consists of solar particle events (SPEs), comprised largely of medium energy protons (less than several hundred MeV); and galactic cosmic rays (GCR), which include high-energy protons and heavy ions. While the frequency distribution of SPEs depends strongly upon the phase within the solar activity cycle, the individual SPE occurrences themselves are random in nature. A solar modulation model has been developed for the temporal characterization of the GCR environment, which is represented by the deceleration potential, ?. The risk of radiation exposure to astronauts as well as to hardware from SPEs during extra-vehicular activities (EVAs) or in lightly shielded vehicles is a major concern for radiation protection. To support the probabilistic risk assessment for EVAs, which could be up to 15% of crew time² on lunar missions, we estimated the probability of SPE occurrence as a function of solar cycle phase using a non-homogeneous Poisson model [1] to fit the historical database of measurements of protons with energy>30 MeV, Φ₃₀. The resultant organ doses and dose equivalents, as well as effective whole body doses, for acute and cancer risk estimations are analyzed for a conceptual habitat module and for a lunar rover during space missions of defined durations. This probabilistic approach to radiation risk assessment from SPE and GCR is in support of mission design and operational planning for future manned space exploration missions.     

月面着陆多尺度边缘光流特征提取与跟踪方法

针对月面着陆器动力下降过程中,基于描述子的传统视觉特征提取和跟踪方法耗时长、误匹配率高等问题,提出一种采用边缘光流的多尺度特征提取与跟踪方法。首先通过构建序列图像金字塔和应用多级掩膜提取方法,改善了图像平面上特征点分布的均匀性;在此基础上,利用边缘直方图灰度差平方和(SSGD)滑窗搜索算法,将光流计算由二维迭代简化为一维匹配,大幅缩短了算法耗时;进一步利用多尺度边缘直方图迭代搜索算法在改善大尺度运动下特征跟踪鲁棒性的同时,将光流计算精度拓展至亚像素级。仿真结果表明,本方法计算耗时不超过描述子方法的50%,非大尺度运动下具有更高的稳定跟踪特征点数目,大尺度运动下相比描述子方法下降不超过15%,在跟踪效率和稳定性方面取得了较好的平衡。     

An inversion approach for lunar regolith layer thickness using optical albedo data and microwave emission simulation

An approach to inversion of the lunar regolith layer thickness by using multi-channel brightness temperature observation in passive microwave remote sensing is developed. To first make simulation of brightness temperature from the lunar layered media, the lunar regolith layer thickness (d) is proposed being constructed by available lunar DEM (digital elevation mapping) and on site measurements. The physical temperature distribution (T) over the lunar surface is also empirically assumed as a monotonic function of the latitude. Optical albedo of the lunar nearside from the telescopic observation is employed to construct the spatial distribution of the FeO+TiO₂ content (S) in the lunar regolith layer. A statistic relationship between the DEM and S of the lunar nearside is further extended to construction of S of the lunar farside. Thus, the dielectric permittivity (ε) of global lunar regolith layer can then be determined. Based on all these conditions (d,T,ε), brightness temperature of the lunar regolith layer in passive microwave remote sensing, which is planned for China's Chang-E lunar project, is numerically simulated by a parallel layering model using the strong fluctuation theory of random media.Then, taking these simulations with random noise as observations, an inversion method of the lunar regolith layer thickness is developed by using three- or two-channels brightness temperatures. When the S is low, and the four channels brightness temperatures in China's Chang-E project are well distinguishable, the regolith layer thickness and physical temperature of the underlying lunar rock media can be inverted by the three-channels approach. When the S becomes high that the brightness temperature at high frequency channels such as 19.35, 37 GHz are saturated, the regolith layer thickness is alternatively inverted only by the two-channels approach.Numerical simulation and inversion approach in this paper make an evaluation of the performance for lunar passive microwave remote sensing, and for future data calibration and validation.     

太阳电池月尘遮蔽模型分析及试验研究

扬起的月尘颗粒沉积在月球探测器的太阳电池表面,可导致其性能下降。文章基于层叠遮挡理论,建立了一种月尘遮蔽光线透射的理论模型,利用该模型开展了模拟月尘颗粒形状与粒径对遮蔽效果影响的分析和计算,并与NASA的同类模型进行了对比分析。分析结果显示:2种模型给出的相对透过率随沉积月尘面密度的变化趋势相同,均呈指数型衰减关系;在随月尘形状、粒径、透过率的变化方面,2种模型存在差异。利用月尘沉积与吸附试验装置实施了模拟月尘沉积试验,验证了所建立模型的正确性,其预测准确度优于NASA模型。     

载人登月舱概念设计阶段多方案比较方法初探

载人登月舱是完成载人登月任务的关键环节,也是登月飞行器系统的核心部分。由于登月舱推进剂占总质量的70％以上,因此在概念设计阶段,多方案比较应重点针对推进剂类型及其对应的构型开展对比分析,从而明确总体方案的深入方向。文章给出了该多方案比较的基本思路,并利用美国Altair登月舱作为实例具体说明该方法的基本流程,首先开展月面着陆器的分级方案选择分析、多种推进剂选择分析,并根据推进剂选择分析的结果,完成上升级、二级方案下降级、三级方案制动级的构型方案分析以及气闸舱的布局分析,最后给出组合多种可行方案,并对多种方案进行综合评价,开展比较分析,筘得帚倦对比音塞曲詹缝铖人签目舱柏袷证工椎打下了基础。     

Numerical investigation on gas–particle flows in horizontal channel under the reduced gravity environments

A unified second-order-moment gas–particle two-phase turbulent model incorporated with kinetic theory of granular flows (USM-θ) is developed to study the particle dispersion behavior of dense gas–particle flows in horizontal channel with 6.96 μm wall roughness and with earth, lunar and microgravity environments, respectively. Anisotropy of gas and particle two-phase stresses and the interaction between two-phase stresses are fully considered by constructing two-phase Reynolds stress model and the transport equation of two-phase stress correlation. The flow behavior of particles in a horizontal channel of Kussin and Sommerfeld [12] experiments is numerically simulated. Results show that the reduced gravity conditions affect the particle concentration distribution, particle velocity and fluctuation velocity, particle temperature, axial–axial fluctuation velocity correlation of gas and particle and particle collision frequency. Under microgravity conditions, particle temperature and collision frequency are much less than those of earth and lunar gravity. Compared with earth gravity, anisotropic of two-phase flow and sedimentation are weaker.     

月球探测与开发愿景（英文）

By summarizing the history, human achievements in lunar exploration, the vision and prospect of the construction of a lunar base for the further development in lunar exploration is proposed. The idea of building a "beehive" lunar village is proposed, and the promotion of future lunar exploration along with the impact on the development of science, technology and the economy is analyzed in this paper.     

Stepping stones to the future: Achieving a sustainable lunar outpost

The current emphasis in the US and internationally on lunar robotic missions is generally viewed as a precursor to possible future human missions to the Moon. As initially framed, the implementation of high level policies such as the US Vision for Space Exploration (VSE) might have been limited to either human lunar sortie missions, or to the testing at the Moon of concepts-of-operations and systems for eventual human missions to Mars [White House, Vision for Space Exploration, Washington, DC, 14 January, 2004. [1]]. However, recently announced (December 2006) US goals go much further: these plans now place at the center of future US—and perhaps international—human spaceflight activities a long-term commitment to an outpost on the Moon.Based on available documents, a human lunar outpost could be emplaced as early as the 2020–2025 timeframe, and would involve numerous novel systems, new technologies and unique operations requirements. As such, substantial investments in research and development (R&D) will be necessary prior to, during, and following the deployment of such an outpost. It seems possible that such an outpost will be an international endeavor, not just the undertaking of a single country—and the US has actively courted partners in the VSE. However, critical questions remain concerning an international lunar outpost. What might such an outpost accomplish? To what extent will “sustainability” be built into the outpost? And, most importantly, what will be the outpost's life cycle cost (LCC)?This paper will explore these issues with a view toward informing key policy and program decisions that must be made during the next several years. The paper will (1) describe a high-level analytical model of a modest lunar outpost, (2) examine (using this model) the parametric characteristics of the outpost in terms of the three critical questions indicated above, and (3) present rough estimates of the relationships of outpost goals and “sustainability” to LCC. The paper will also consider possible outpost requirements for near-term investments in enabling research in light of experiences in past advanced technology programs.     

着陆冲击仿真月壤本构模型及有限元建模

为建立合理的月壤有限元模型用于着陆器着陆冲击动力学仿真分析,在对已知月壤的相关力学特性参数和试验数据进行分析推理的基础上,推断出月壤屈服面在低围压条件下可能会呈现出剪切膨胀特性,而在高围压条件下则可能会呈现出塑性压缩和应变硬化特性,因此定性地选择帽盖德鲁克-普拉格（Cap Drucker-Prager,CDP）模型作为月壤本构模型。模型的参数通过月壤或模拟月壤的试验数据定量地标定。对着陆器地面着陆冲击试验进行有限元建模和仿真分析,仿真结果表明：模型参数的标定方法是合理可行的;CDP模型可以准确模拟月壤在着陆冲击载荷下的动力学响应,可用于着陆冲击动力学仿真月壤有限元建模。对月壤模型参数进行了参数分析,并评估了月壤模型参数对着陆器着陆冲击性能的影响。     

A socio-economic evaluation of the lunar environment and resources: II. Energy for the selenosphere

This first of several study papers, based on a fundamental paper presented in 1972, provides an independent conceptual analysis and evaluation of the lunar environment as industrial base and habitat. A selenosphere system strategy is outlined. The underlying concept is that of one or several lunar industrial zones for resource extraction and on-surface processing, integrated with a circumlunar zero-g processing capability, serving markets in geolunar space. A classification of lunar elements by utilization category is presented. Lunar oxygen is a prime candidate for being an initial economic “drawing card”, because of its value for fast transportation in geolunar space, requiring significantly fewer ships for equal transfer capability per unit time than electric transports which, however, have value, especially between geosynchronous and lunar orbit. The reduced development difficulties of controlled fusion outside the atmosphere and its advantages for extracting oxygen and other elements in quantity are summarized. Examples of lunar cycle management as fundamental exoindustrial requirement for economic resource enhancement are presented. The principal initial socio-economic value of lunar industry lies in the use of lunar resources for exoindustrial products and operations designed to accelerate, intensify and diversify Earth-related benefits. In the longer run, lunar settlements are a highly suitable proving ground for studying and testing the complex matrix of technological, biological, cultural, social and psychological aspects that must be understood and manageable before large settlements beyond Earth can have a realistic basis for viability. The lunar environment is more suitable for experimentation and comparatively more “forgiving” in case of failures than is orbital space.     

Further analyses of the slide lander and of drop delivery systems for improved lunar surface access

The paper discusses two methods for lunar surface access. One method is characterized by very little propellant consumption for landing (lunar slide lander, LSL); the other (drop delivery method, DDM) avoids release of propellant gases at the lunar surface. The LSL is of particular promise and importance. Its analysis and development introduces a new field of cosmic dynamics—harenodynamics, the science and technology of interaction of surfaces with dust and sand at near-orbital speeds down to low velocities. Although the data base is small so far and needs to be enlarged, analyses of the LSL so far indicate promise as to feasibility. Its realization will revolutionize present conventional concepts of lunar development. The DDM offers cost-effective alternatives to conventional lunar landing by retrothrust, but on a more selective basis, because propellant-savings are secondary to avoiding gas releases into the lunar high-vacuum environment. It was found that stationary energy absorption systems (EAS) are required, because vehicle-attached absorption systems are entirely inadequate. This requires large structures which can be built on the lunar surface only after a somewhat higher degree of industrial capability has been established. However, they can be built entirely of lunar materials. Altogether, the LSL is the more significant of the two both in terms of economy and of operational scope.     

月表地形环境对着陆器热控系统的影响分析

月球着陆器着陆月表之后的外热流环境与地球轨道卫星外热流环境的最大区别在于月表红外热流的影响.分析月表地形特征是确定月表红外热流影响范围的基础.文章根据调研分析选择了月海地区可能存在的平坦月表、斜坡、石块和撞击坑4种典型地形特征以及月表的热物性参数,并通过计算分析得出了月表地形对着陆器热控系统的一些影响规律--其中平坦月表和斜坡的影响最大,石块和小型撞击坑的影响可以忽略,大型撞击坑可以等效为斜坡的影响.     

月球表面地形数学建模方法

月球表面地形数学模型的建立是月球探测器和月面巡视探测器研制的基础,是登月飞行器和科学探测仪器设计的重要输入条件和约束条件。文章根据国外公布的月表地形模型进行分析,建立数字高程模型,对地形进行数字化描述和表示,生成月表光滑月海区域仿真地形数据。该数据能够为一般任务提供数据支持。     

月面数字地形构造方法研究

月面巡视探测器着陆区域的地形将对其产生重要的影响。文章对月面数字地形构造方法进行了研究。首先,对月面典型地形特征石块和撞击坑的分布规律和典型形状进行了分析。其次,说明了数字地形的生成流程。再次,先后利用两种方法确定石块和撞击坑的直径,在此基础上构建了数字地形。一种方法是根据巡视器的越障能力确定石块和撞击坑直径,该方法可在一定程度上满足巡视探测器移动性能试验需求;另一种方法是随机生成石块和撞击坑的直径,使生成的地形符合月面的实际情况,不仅可以应用于巡视探测器的移动性能试验,而且也可以应用于路径规划和着陆器着陆过程的模拟。     

应用计算几何的月面太阳辐照度仿真模型

月面太阳辐照度对月面环境分析、月面巡视器设计具有重要意义。文章提出了一种应用计算几何的月面任意位置太阳辐照度仿真模型。首先,计算太阳、地球等天体相对月面点的位置;然后,将各天体投影至以月面点为球心的天球球面,并通过裁剪运算和二维布尔运算得到太阳未被遮挡的形状;最后,利用太阳可见面积对理想太阳辐照度模型进行修正,得到通用的模型。为验证提出模型的有效性,将仿真结果与STK软件进行比较。结果表明,文章中的模型综合考虑了地球、月面等多种因素对太阳辐射的耦合影响,其与STK软件获得的结果相比,更符合真实的太阳光照状态。     

一种基于UPF的月球车自主天文导航方法

介绍了月球车自主天文导航原理和传统的迭代解析高度差方法，提出了一种基于月球车运动模型和UPF（Unscented粒子滤波）的自主天文导航新方法。该方法仅需利用由星敏感器和惯性测量单元测量得到的恒星的天体高度，结合月球车的运动模型，通过UPF滤波，即可获得高精度的月球车实时位置信息。计算机仿真结果表明该方法与传统方法相比，定位精度有了大幅提高，同时对几个关键的精度影响因素的仿真分析显示该方法可以有效的减弱量测噪声，星历误差等对系统性能的影响，使系统具有更高的适应能力。     

浅表层月壤铲挖采样的振动减阻技术仿真研究

文章对振动铲挖技术在浅表层月壤采样过程中的适用性进行了研究。根据月壤宏观、细观参数,采用离散元法建立了月壤模型,对月球表面低重力低气压环境下的月壤应力—应变特性进行仿真,并结合采用Balovnev机—土交互模型描述的月壤铲挖阻力公式,对月壤的振动减阻机理进行了分析。在此基础上,通过向采样器施加不同振幅和频率的振动,开展了浅表层月壤铲挖仿真,给出了铲挖过程中不同振动参数与月壤采样阻力的关系。同时,通过对比不同工况下的月壤孔隙率,验证了月壤的振动铲挖减阻机理及适用性。     

Control system design of the Korean lunar lander demonstrator

In preparation for the lunar exploration program scheduled to be launched during the early 2020s in Korea, a lunar lander demonstrator, which will be used for developing and demonstrating lunar landing technologies, is being developed. The control configuration of the lunar lander demonstrator is determined with the consideration of available technologies and flight requirements. It is suggested that altitude control be achieved by clustering five 200 N monopropellant thrusters and attitude control with eight 3 N thrusters. A control algorithm designed to follow a predefined trajectory is developed using quaternion feedback. Control system configuration and control logic are verified by using computer simulations. Simulation results show that a soft landing with a touchdown velocity of less than 3 m/s is achieved. Attitude control performance is also verified using computer simulations. The developed control configuration will be further tested by hardware in the loop simulations and ground based firing tests during the next phase of the study.