Basic space science and developing countries

Basic science — including space science — is vital for national development, but developing countries often meet obstacles to participation in the international scientific community. This can be mitigated by international cooperation, particularly in the field of education. The author calls for a concerted effort to increase such cooperation regionally, internationally and bilaterally; international organizations should also become involved. Various forms of cooperation are suggested and UN efforts in the promotion of basic space science are described.     

Progress in basic space science education and research: The UNBSSI

This report describes recent progress in the UN Basic Space Science Initiative (UNBSSI), which aims to facilitate space science education and research, and attendant resources in developing countries. In addition to holding workshops across the developing world, the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) successfully implemented the International Heliophysical Year (IHY) as a catalyst for improving understanding of the Sun and of solar-terrestrial physics. Building on this it is now preparing for the International Space Weather Initiative (ISWI). Achievements of the former are discussed, as are the goals and anticipated activities of the latter.     

The 2002 Space Cooperation Protocol between China and Brazil: An excellent example of South–South cooperation

China and Brazil have been cooperating in space since 1986 and, after 15 years of successful joint creative work, the two sides agreed a 2002 Protocol, providing a more concrete framework for further cooperation in space projects. This bilateral agreement was heralded as an authentic bilateral effort amplifying the so-called South–South relationship. A close examination of the Protocol has revealed that the document, while responding to the UN Declaration on International Cooperation, has made a significant contribution and set a good example for space cooperation among developing countries. Placed against the background of ongoing space commercialization, the success of this model can test the viability of existing space commercial rules and help introduce further improvements.     

Developing countries, the GEO and the WARC-ORB 85 conference

This article considers the problems to be discussed at the WARC-ORB 85 Conference from the perspective of the developing countries. Two main concerns have been expressed by developing countries: access to the geostationary orbit and the technical and financial burdens imposed by technical standards for satellites and earth stations. It is argued that cooperation in outer space particularly in the field of telecommunications is essential, and that programmes such as the UN technical assistance programmes offer the basis for such cooperation.     

A framework for evaluating national space activity

Space technology and resources are used around the world to address societal challenges. Space provides valuable satellite services, unique scientific discoveries, surprising technology applications and new economic opportunities. Many developing countries formally recognize the advantages of space resources and pursue national level activity to harness them. There is limited data or documentation on the space activities of developing countries. Meanwhile, traditional approaches to summarize national space activity do not necessarily capture the types of activity that developing countries pursue in space. This is especially true if they do not have a formal national space program or office. Developing countries pursue national space activity through activities of many types—from national satellite programs to commercial use of satellite services to involvement with international space institutions. This research aims to understand and analyze these trends. This paper introduces two analytical frameworks for evaluating space activity at the national level. The frameworks are specifically designed to capture the activity of countries that have traditionally been less involved in space. They take a broad view of space related activity across multiple societal sectors and disciplines. The discussion explains the approach for using the frameworks as well as illustrative examples of how they can be applied as part of a research process. The first framework is called the Mission and Management Ladders. This framework considers specific space projects within countries and ranks them on “Ladders” that measure technical challenge and managerial autonomy. This first method is at a micro level of analysis. The second framework is called the Space Participation Metric (SPM). The SPM can be used to assign a Space Participation score to countries based on their involvement in various space related activities. This second method uses a macro level of analysis. The authors developed both frameworks as part of a long term research program about the space activities of developing countries. This aspect of the research focuses on harnessing multiple techniques to summarize complex, multi-disciplinary information about global space activity.     

The United Nations Programme on Space Applications: Status and direction for 2010

The United Nations Programme on Space Applications was established in 1971 to assist countries in making full use of the benefits of space technology and its applications for social and economic development. Since its inception the programme has organized numerous training courses, workshops, seminars and conferences and provided funding support for more than 10?000 experts, mainly from developing countries, to participate in those activities. The programme has continuously evolved over four decades, taking into account the latest developments in the field of space activities, to best serve the capacity-building needs of countries and to help ensure that space-based solutions contribute to improving life on Earth. This report describes the status and direction of the UN Programme on Space Applications as recommended for approval by the UN’s Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS) Scientific and Technical Subcommittee at its 47th session held in Vienna in February 2010.     

Technical and legal issues surrounding space debris—India''s position in the UN

This article briefly presents the historical background, as seen by ISRO and India, to the growing problem of space debris. It describes the technical aspects of ISRO's activities in the field of space debris, and the grey areas in technical understanding, which may impede legal discussions. Analysis of the cost and technical aspects of reorbiting satellites from geostationary Earth orbit (GEO) is detailed, since this is an important area for India and other developing countries. The article also briefly describes ISRO's views of the applicability and relevance of the existing space treaties to a possible future legal regime for space debris. Debates are currently taking place in the UN and other multilateral fora on the subject of space debris and the situation is dynamic. The main aim of this article is to inform readers of ISRO's and India's position in the UN on the subject of space debris, in terms of its technical, political and legal aspects. Certain issues of importance from the legal point of view, though not of immediate urgency, are also discussed.     

Ensuring equal access to the benefits of space technologies for all countries

There is a concern in the developing world that industrialized countries have not done all they might under Article 1 of the Outer Space Treaty to make the benefits of space technology available to all countries; some are now seeking codification of rights and responsibilities in this sphere. This article discusses recent debate on the issues by COPUOS and its Legal Subcommittee on whether an additional legal framework is necessary to ensure a fairer distribution of benefits. G77 countries were strongly in favour of some form of technology and information transfer, while industrialized countries favoured the existing practice of developing international cooperative space projects. The author believes that a new set of principles will be formulated in the next few years and that organizations like Intelsat and Inmarsat can provide valuable models for ensuring access through cooperative programmes.     

International space programmes and policies : N. Jasentuliyana and Ralph Chipman, eds North Holland, Amsterdam and New York, 1984, 552 pp, $65.00

The Second United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space ( 82) identified crucial problems and made recommendations on strategies for developing countries to bridge the gap with advanced nations in the area of space technology. This article addresses some issues which, although implicit in the Report, are not discussed in detail therein. The role of space science and related scientific research is particularly emphasized. Close attention is paid to the role of human factors, such as the motivation to conduct research, the motivation to engage in international cooperation, and the motivation to utilize and exploit space. Possible opportunities for space research for developing countries, as well as relevant issues concerning management of space, are briefly discussed.     

The participation of developing countries in space research

The Second United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (Unispace 82) identified crucial problems and made recommendations on strategies for developing countries to bridge the gap with advanced nations in the area of space technology. This article addresses some issues which, although implicit in the Unispace Report, are not discussed in detail therein. The role of space science and related scientific research is particularly emphasized. Close attention is paid to the role of human factors, such as the motivation to conduct research, the motivation to engage in international cooperation, and the motivation to utilize and exploit space. Possible opportunities for space research for developing countries, as well as relevant issues concerning management of space, are briefly discussed.     

Canadian space policy

Canada's geography made it an early leader in the development of space technology, and generated a civilian-oriented, terrestrially focused space programme with a strong focus on communications and an increasing emphasis on transferring space technology and activity from the government to the private sector. During the 1980s Canada's space programme has strengthened and broadened measurably; its now contains major projects in Earth observation and robotics as well as communications, and has diversified its international partnerships from the USA to Europe. However, persisting weaknesses in launch capability, space science and military space programmes, and the dependence of all three current major projects (Msat, Radarsat, and the International Space Station's Mobile Servicing System) on the USA represent potential vulnerabilities which require national investments and expanded international affiliations if they are to be offset.     

International Heliophysical Year 2007: Basic space science initiatives

The UN Office for Outer Space Affairs, through the IHY Secretariat and the United Nations Basic Space Science Initiative (UNBSSI), assists scientists and engineers world-wide to participate in the International Heliophysical Year (IHY) 2007. A major thrust of IHY/UNBSSI is to deploy arrays of small, inexpensive instruments such as magnetometers, radio telescopes, GPS receivers, all-sky cameras, etc. around the world to allow global measurements of ionospheric and heliospheric phenomena. The small instrument program is envisioned as a partnership between instrument providers and instrument hosts in developing nations, with the former providing the instruments, the host nation the manpower, facilities and operational support, typically at a local university. Funds are not available through IHY/UNBSSI to build the instruments; these must be obtained through the normal proposal channels. All instrument operational support for local scientists, facilities, data acquisition, etc. will be provided by the host nation. The IHY/UNBSSI can facilitate the deployment of several of these networks and existing databases and relevant software tools will be identified to promote space science activities in developing nations. Extensive data on space science have been accumulated by a number of space missions. Similarly, long-term databases are available from ground-based observations. These data can be utilized in ways different from those originally intended for understanding the heliophysical processes. This report provides an overview of IHY/UNBSSI, its achievements, future plans and outreach to the 192 member states of the United Nations.     

Developments in space activities in Poland

Poland has a long-standing tradition in space activities. Polish institutions have participated as co-investigators in almost all European Space Agency (ESA) science projects, as well as on many other missions. However, the first Polish satellite (PW-SAT) was only launched in 2012. Poland was one of the first Eastern European countries to conclude a Cooperation Agreement with ESA in the peaceful use of outer space; it was signed in 1994 and followed by a second in January 2002. Negotiations on Polish membership in the ESA were started in autumn of 2011, and ended in April 2012. Following ratification of the agreement, Poland officially became the 20th Member State of ESA on 19 November 2012. This article examines how Poland is setting its way as a space nation. It describes recent developments in the Polish space programme, including the road to Poland's full membership in the European Space Agency.     

Developing remote sensing and GIS hands-on modules to support UN-affiliated education programmes

Implementing remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) education programmes by the UN-affiliated regional centres for space science and technology in developing nations poses challenges because of the imbalance between industrialized and developing nations in the number of experts able to cover the topics defined by the core curriculum. This scenario creates a window of opportunity for developing instructional materials using information technologies to support local experts in teaching these topics. The goal behind teaching remote sensing and GIS should focus on providing scholars with the skills and capacity to allow them to engage in active work after they complete the UN programme. One of the most effective ways of learning process associated with technical skills is through the problem-solving exercises of Problem-Based Learning. A multi-layered decision-making module that provides feedback and allows multiple final solutions is proposed. Module development and implementation includes an initial stage focusing on assessing UN-affiliated regional centres RS/GIS application interest areas and cultural framework and a second phase dedicated to converting the various materials developed in English to the other five UN official languages.     

The importance of downstream aspects: what can space offer the user?

This report on the commercial benefits of space does not seek to cover in depth all user sectors, but rather to establish an overview of what can be expected by users from the use of space. The growth of applications of technology to projects in the space field has been so rapid and broad, that it has overtaken the level of awareness by many sectors of the community of the benefits that space applications can offer. There is therefore a great need to broaden and deepen the level of awareness by many in the world community of what space is all about. These opportunities apply as much to the developing countries of the world as the developed ones.     

What role for Europe within a future global space exploration approach?

Europe is present in robotic exploration though the European Space Agency?s mandatory space science program and the optional Aurora program. In addition some member states are also involved in projects of non-European space faring countries through bilateral co-operations. Europe is also present in human exploration through the ISS utilization program. ESA and some of its member states participate in the activities of the International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG), a club of 14 space agencies working for the elaboration of a global exploration roadmap. Finally, ESA and the European Union have initiated a political approach with the setting up of an international forum so as to elaborate a commonly agreed vision on space exploration at political level.     

The need for a United Nations space policy

The international community is entering an era of shared global utilities from space and is increasingly reliant on space systems and activities that support a myriad of applications and utilities on Earth. A growing number of states are seeking to develop or extend their space capabilities. At the same time, a variety of non-state actors are also extending their involvement in space activities. The United Nations is the principal inter-governmental forum to deal with various space issues of global importance. Moreover, the United Nations system itself has become increasingly reliant on space systems for its day-to-day operations. In order for the United Nations to play its necessary role in the space arena, it will need to be supported by a space policy. A United Nations space policy would provide over-arching guidance on space activities for UN stakeholders in the space arena; it would inform UN participation in space activities and would promote improved coordination and cooperative governance of outer space activities. A world without a common UN space policy will not be able to respond to the challenges of the rapidly evolving space arena in the 21st century.     

Trends in the global space arena – Impact on Africa and Africa's response

Since the establishment of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Exploration and Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) in 1959, many actions that affect the advancement of the space frontier have been taken, within and outside COPUOS, in the interest of the global community, but without much input from Africa. Yet a number of African countries have joined those with assets in space, albeit without the necessary infrastructure on the ground. These actions vary in scope, in importance and in participation; however, they affect us all. Examples include the legal instruments that are in operation today for the exploration and peaceful uses of outer space, sustainability of the outer space environment and the Global Exploration Strategy– Framework for Coordination (GES–FC), conceived by 14 spacefaring nations; this laid out the details needed for an active global space exploration programme. This paper reflects on existing space-related regional cooperation arrangements at the inter-governmental level, including the African Leadership Conference on Space Science and Technology for Sustainable Development (ALC). Noting that, despite UN General Assembly endorsement of the need for developing countries to have access to the International Space Station (ISS), almost all in Africa have not, it asks what Africa might gain from such an experience. The paper concludes with an examination of where and why Africa needs to focus its immediate space-related efforts – on the ground here on Earth or in outer space?     

Space technology in developing nations: an assessment

Space technology can make an immense contribution to solving the problems of the world as a whole, and the developing nations in particular. This report summarizes the use of satellites by developing countries in the fields of communications, remote sensing, disaster management and space science. India and China, in particular, have built up impressive capabilities in several of these areas, but the great majority of developing countries still do not have access to this technology. The author addresses a number of proposals to the international community for bringing the satellite revolution to the developing world.