Taking a common-pool resources approach to space sustainability: A framework and potential policies

This paper examines Nobel Prize Winner Elinor Ostrom's principles for sustainable governance of common-pool resources (CPR), capturing the best practices of CPRs over the years, which avoid the “Tragedy of the Commons” without being either completely privatized or controlled by a Leviathan entity. Ostrom's principles highlight, inter alia, the need for clear boundary definitions, rules tailored to fit the domain, who has a say in formulation of collective-choice agreements and operational rules, monitoring of behavior, graduated penalties, and conflict resolution mechanisms. In the context of the space domain they highlight issues such as the definition of where space begins, gaps in the existing liability regime, the concept of collaborative space situational awareness, and how best to include emerging and developing space actors in negotiations and decision making. The paper concludes that Ostrom's principles highlight specific areas on which to focus initial space sustainability efforts and national and international policy. It also recommends further analysis into how best to translate her principles to the space domain, where they may not be wholly applicable because of the unique nature of space, and how to evolve space governance institutions and mechanisms to best suit the unique environment of outer space.     

A quantitative evaluation of the iron-sulfur world and its relevance to life's origins

The significance of W?chtersh?user's iron-sulfur world to the origin of life and the limits to its notional autocatalytic cycles are examined in kinetic simulations of the chain polymerization sequence: primitive materials-->amino acids-->oligomers. The simulations were run for the formation of all oligomers up to the 20-mer over a 1 Gy interval from the end of the period of heavy bombardment, during which period life emerged. Upper-limit rate constant estimates developed from the studies of Huber and W?chtersh?user were employed. The simulations showed that oligomer production consistent with life's start within that interval emerges only with an autocatalyst exhibiting a catalytic proficiency comparable to that of contemporary enzymes. The simulations, moreover, ignored likely thermodynamic and statistical burdens which, if included, would have led to the need for catalytic capacities well in excess of those in present-day enzymes. Prebiotic oligomers with such levels of activity are clearly not likely, and it is apparent that the iron-sulfur scheme could not have played a role in life's beginnings.     

SOLID3: a multiplex antibody microarray-based optical sensor instrument for in situ life detection in planetary exploration

The search for unequivocal signs of life on other planetary bodies is one of the major challenges for astrobiology. The failure to detect organic molecules on the surface of Mars by measuring volatile compounds after sample heating, together with the new knowledge of martian soil chemistry, has prompted the astrobiological community to develop new methods and technologies. Based on protein microarray technology, we have designed and built a series of instruments called SOLID (for "Signs Of LIfe Detector") for automatic in situ detection and identification of substances or analytes from liquid and solid samples (soil, sediments, or powder). Here, we present the SOLID3 instrument, which is able to perform both sandwich and competitive immunoassays and consists of two separate functional units: a Sample Preparation Unit (SPU) for 10 different extractions by ultrasonication and a Sample Analysis Unit (SAU) for fluorescent immunoassays. The SAU consists of five different flow cells, with an antibody microarray in each one (2000 spots). It is also equipped with an exclusive optical package and a charge-coupled device (CCD) for fluorescent detection. We demonstrated the performance of SOLID3 in the detection of a broad range of molecular-sized compounds, which range from peptides and proteins to whole cells and spores, with sensitivities at 1-2?ppb (ng?mL?1) for biomolecules and 10? to 103 spores per milliliter. We report its application in the detection of acidophilic microorganisms in the Río Tinto Mars analogue and report the absence of substantial negative effects on the immunoassay in the presence of 50?mM perchlorate (20 times higher than that found at the Phoenix landing site). Our SOLID instrument concept is an excellent option with which to detect biomolecules because it avoids the high-temperature treatments that may destroy organic matter in the presence of martian oxidants.     

Potential of cathodoluminescence microscopy and spectroscopy for the detection of prokaryotic cells on minerals

Detecting mineral-hosted ecosystems to assess the extent and functioning of the biosphere from the surface to deep Earth requires appropriate techniques that provide, beyond the morphological criteria, indubitable clues of the presence of prokaryotic cells. Here, we evaluate the capability of cathodoluminescence microscopy and spectroscopy, implemented on a scanning electron microscope, to identify prokaryotes on mineral surfaces. For this purpose, we used, as a first step, a simple model of either unstained or stained cultivable cells (Escherichia coli, Deinococcus radiodurans) deposited on minerals that are common in the oceanic crust (basaltic glass, amphibole, pyroxene, and magnetite). Our results demonstrate that the detection of cells is possible at the micrometric level on the investigated minerals through the intrinsic fluorescence of their constituting macromolecules (aromatic amino and nucleic acids, coenzymes). This allows us to distinguish biomorph inorganic phases from cells. This easily implemented technique permits an exploration of colonized rock samples. In addition, the range of spectrometric techniques available on a scanning electron microscope can provide additional information on the nature and chemistry of the associated mineral phases, which would lead to a simultaneous characterization of cells, their microhabitats, and a better understanding of their potential relationships.     

A theory of circular organization and negative feedback: defining life in a cybernetic context

All life today incorporates a variety of systems controlled by negative feedback loops and sometimes amplified by positive feedback loops. The first forms of life necessarily also required primitive versions of feedback, yet surprisingly little emphasis has been given to the question of how feedback emerged out of primarily chemical systems. One chemical system has been established that spontaneously develops autocatalytic feedback, the Belousov-Zhabotinsky (BZ) reaction. In this essay, I discuss the BZ reaction as a possible model for similar reactions that could have occurred under prebiotic Earth conditions. The main point is that the metabolism of contemporary life evolved from primitive homeostatic networks regulated by negative feedback. Because life could not exist in their absence, feedback loops should be included in definitions of life.     

Quasi-synchronous orbits and their employment for the approach of a spacecraft to Phobos

The problem of construction of quasi-synchronous orbits which pass through a prescribed point over the surface of Phobos at a prescribed instant of time is considered. The orbits should pass as close as possible to the surface of Phobos at each passage above the planned region of landing.     

A combinatorial approach to biochemical space: description and application to the redox distribution of metabolism

Redox chemistry is central to life on Earth. It is well known that life uses redox chemistry to capture energy from environmental chemical energy gradients. Here, we propose that a second use of redox chemistry, related to building biomass from environmental carbon, is equally important to life. We apply a method based on chemical structure to evaluate the redox range of different groups of terrestrial biochemicals, and find that they are consistently of intermediate redox range. We hypothesize the common intermediate range is related to the chemical space required for the selection of a consistent set of metabolites. We apply a computational method to show that the redox range of the chemical space shows the same restricted redox range as the biochemicals that are selected from that space. By contrast, the carbon from which life is composed is available in the environment only as fully oxidized or reduced species. We therefore argue that redox chemistry is essential to life for assembling biochemicals for biomass building. This biomass-building reason for life to require redox chemistry is in addition (and in contrast) to life's use of redox chemistry to capture energy. Life's use of redox chemistry for biomass capture will generate chemical by-products-that is, biosignature gases-that are not in redox equilibrium with life's environment. These potential biosignature gases may differ from energy-capture redox biosignatures.     

Structural and functional changes in man accompanying the weightlessness in "Skylab" flights: a mathematical approach

The present paper reports a kinetic analysis of changes of some physiological parameters, obtained from international literature, after changes in gravitational environment. The overall phenomenology of the adaptation to weightlessness is characterized by a rapid process followed by a slow one. The two processes show half time values differing by about five times. Also in the case of readaptation to gravity, after recovery on the Earth, two well resolved processes, showing different half time values, are observed. It is of interest to notice that the rate of response to weightlessness is lower than that to gravity. Of course, the half time values observed depend on the different physiological parameters considered. In any case, the experimental data suggest a general trend of many adaptive changes, that may all be described by a simple mathematical model.     

微分截断误差的遥、外测数据融合估计和补偿方法研究

通过对定位数据求微分以获得目标的速度参数，是靶场估计目标运动参数的常用方法。由于坐标参数模型的高阶特性，使得在通过对坐标数据微分求速度参数时，产生较大的微分截断误差。仅靠外测数据本身，是无法估计该误差的。该文提出了利用遥、外测数据融合估计该截断误差并予以补偿的方法，可有效估计速度参数求解时的方法误差，从而提高参数估计的精度。     

Application of the Mars Organic Analyzer to nucleobase and amine biomarker detection

The Mars Organic Analyzer (MOA), a portable microfabricated capillary electrophoresis instrument being developed for planetary exploration, is used to analyze a wide variety of fluorescamine-labeled amine-containing biomarker compounds, including amino acids, mono and diaminoalkanes, amino sugars, nucleobases, and nucleobase degradation products. The nucleobases cytosine and adenine, which contain an exocyclic primary amine, were effectively labeled, separated, and detected at concentrations <500 nM. To test the general applicability of the MOA for biomarker detection, amino acids and mono- and diamines were extracted from bacterial cells using both hydrolysis and sublimation followed by analysis. The extrapolated limit of detection provided by the valine biomarker was approximately 4 x 10(3) cells per sample. Products of an NH(4)CN polymerization that simulate a prebiotic synthesis were also successfully isolated via sublimation and analyzed. Adenine and alanine/serine were detected with no additional sample cleanup at 120 +/- 13 microM and 4.1 +/- 1 microM, respectively, corresponding to a reaction yield of 0.04% and 0.0003%, respectively. This study demonstrates that the MOA provides sensitive detection and analysis of low levels of a wide variety of amine-containing organic compounds from both biological and abiotic sources.     

A symbiotic approach to SETI observations: use of maps from the Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope

High spatial resolution continuum radio maps produced by the Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope (WSRT) of The Netherlands at frequencies near the 21 cm HI line have been examined for anomalous sources of emmission coincident with the locations of nearby bright stars. From a total of 542 stellar positions investigated, no candidates for radio stars or ETI signals were discovered to formal limits on the minimum detectable signal ranging from 7.7 x 10(-22) W/m2 to 6.4 x 10(-24) W/m2. This preliminary study has verified that data collected by radio astronomers at large synthesis arrays can profitably be analysed for SETI signals (in a non-interfering manner) provided only that the data are available in the form of a more or less standard two dimensional map format.     

Design of meo constellations for galileo: towards a “design to cost” approach

GALILEO aims at involving Europe in a new generation of satellite navigation services. In the context of the phase A of this programme, many system options are still widely open: detailed requirements, constraints and hypotheses are not yet fully stabilised.In order to design a satellite constellation satisfying civil aviation and other users needs in this early stage of the system definition, it is necessary not only to take into account classical performance aspects, such as accuracy and availability of accuracy, but also cost constraints. The paper describes the design and dimensioning method which has led ALCATEL to propose a set of MEO constellations in the frame of the GALILEO project for ESA. It especially places emphasis upon the sensitivity of the system design to numerous parameters as well as its sensitivity to performance requirements.Potential candidate constellations obviously need to meet given performance specifications which are determined by operational aspects such as: satellite reliability, maintenance strategy (spare in orbit, launch on schedule, launch on need), deployment strategy (launcher choice, etc.). The estimated cost of a potential solution is mainly derived from the number of satellites and the deployment/maintenance strategy, but it is representative of the whole life-cycle of the constellation. Furthermore, the exhibited solution shall be “as robust as” possible to requirement or assumption changes. So, it should be a baseline solution that could be easily updated in order to take into account small upgrades.This has led to the performance of some trend analyses to understand the actual influence of some constraints or requirements on the system design, and to see how initial requirements can be efficiently relaxed in order to obtain the maximum system cost diminution for a minimum constraint relaxation. This will be very useful, if cost reduction is necessary, to quickly propose alternative or sub-solutions to the baseline one.     

Promoting research and education in basic space science: the approach of the UN/ESA workshops

UN-affiliated regional centres for space science and technology education are being established or are in operation in Africa (Morocco, Nigeria), Asia and the Pacific (India), Latin America and the Caribbean (Brazil, Mexico), and Western Asia (Jordan). Education curricula at the university level, embracing remote sensing, satellite communications, satellite meteorology, and space science have been developed for these centres. This article briefly reports on the structure of the most recent updated education curricula in the four disciplines that have been made available for implementation in 2002 and 2003, in the six official languages of the United Nations. This is also an effort to bridge the gap between such education curricula as they vary significantly between nations and among educational institutions in nations.     

The catalytic potential of cosmic dust: implications for prebiotic chemistry in the solar nebula and other protoplanetary systems

The synthesis of important prebiotic molecules is fundamentally reliant on basic starting ingredients: water, organic species [e.g., methane (CH(4))], and reduced nitrogen compounds [e.g., ammonia (NH(3)), methyl cyanide (CH(3)CN) etc.]. However, modern studies conclude that the primordial Earth's atmosphere was too rich in CO, CO(2), and water to permit efficient synthesis of such reduced molecules as envisioned by the classic Miller-Urey experiment. Other proposed sources of terrestrial nitrogen reduction, like those within submarine vent systems, also seem to be inadequate sources of chemically reduced C-H-O-N compounds. Here, we demonstrate that nebular dust analogs have impressive catalytic properties for synthesizing prebiotic molecules. Using a catalyst analogous to nebular iron silicate condensate, at temperatures ranging from 500K to 900K, we catalyzed both the Fischer-Tropsch conversion of CO and H(2) to methane and water, and the corresponding Haber-Bosch synthesis of ammonia from N(2) and H(2). Remarkably, when CO, N(2), and H(2) were allowed to react simultaneously, these syntheses also yielded nitrogen-containing organics such as methyl amine (CH(3)NH(2)), acetonitrile (CH(3)CN), and N-methyl methylene imine (H(3)CNCH(2)). A fundamental consequence of this work for astrobiology is the potential for a natural chemical pathway to produce complex chemical building blocks of life throughout our own Solar System and beyond.     

Survival and germinability of Bacillus subtilis spores exposed to simulated Mars solar radiation: implications for life detection and planetary protection

Bacterial spores have been considered as microbial life that could survive interplanetary transport by natural impact processes or human spaceflight activity. Deposition of terrestrial microbes or their biosignature molecules onto the surface of Mars could negatively impact life detection experiments and planetary protection measures. Simulated Mars solar radiation, particularly the ultraviolet component, has been shown to reduce spore viability, but its effect on spore germination and resulting production of biosignature molecules has not been explored. We examined the survival and germinability of Bacillus subtilis spores exposed to simulated martian conditions that include solar radiation. Spores of B. subtilis that contain luciferase resulting from expression of an sspB-luxAB gene fusion were deposited on aluminum coupons to simulate deposition on spacecraft surfaces and exposed to simulated Mars atmosphere and solar radiation. The equivalent of 42 min of simulated Mars solar radiation exposure reduced spore viability by nearly 3 logs, while germination-induced bioluminescence, a measure of germination metabolism, was reduced by less than 1 log. The data indicate that spores can retain the potential to initiate germination-associated metabolic processes and produce biological signature molecules after being rendered nonviable by exposure to Mars solar radiation.