The Charging of Planetary Rings

This chapter will review what is known about the charging of planetary rings, in particular the sum of the individual currents from the time-varying charge dQ/dt, of the planetary ring particle. For the smallest ring particles, in addition to checking the plasma conditions for the charging currents, one must consider if collective effects in the ring environment are relevant. Two planetary ring environments that have held a strong interest for ring scientists in the last two decades are Saturn’s spokes in the B Ring and the environment of Saturn’s E ring. Two sections of this chapter will describe these planetary ring charging environments in detail. Finally, we describe two charging effects that demonstrate areas of future studies while providing fresh examples of the intriguing effects from planetary ring charging processes.     

Charge Generation and Separation Processes

This paper presents a short overview of our current understanding of the generation of charged particles in different environments and circumstances (e.g. thunderclouds, dust storms, volcanic plumes, rings, and planetary surfaces) and the subsequent spatial separation that leads to the formation of electrical fields. Different mechanisms are involved on various scales, starting from the molecular level, through the single particle (droplet, crystal, solid) and finally the entraining volume (cloud, plume etc.). Encapsulated within a dynamic and turbulent medium, particles need to come into contact and to immediately separate, to be later transported away from each other. In order to explain the observed electrical fields and ensuing lightning or other forms of discharge, these processes need to be extremely effective. The section will briefly review laboratory results and modeling efforts of charge separation and electric field build-up in various planetary settings, and cite the appropriate observations of electrical activity on different planets.     

Containment ability and groove depth design of U type protection ring

High-energy rotor uncontained failure can cause catastrophic damage effects to aircraft systems if not addressed in design. In this paper, numerical simulations of three high-energy rotor disk fragments impacting on U type protection rings are carried out using LS-DYNA. Protection rings with the same mass and different groove depths are designed to study the influence of the groove depth. Simulation results including kinetic energy and impact force variation of single fragment are presented. It shows that the groove depth infects both the axial containment ability of the protection ring and the transfer process of energy. The depth of groove ought to be controlled to an appropriate value to meet both the requirement of axial containment and higher safety factor. Verification test on high-speed spin tester has been conducted and shows that protection ring with appropriate U structure can resist the impact of the disk burst fragments. The ring is inflated from a circular to an oval-triangle shape. The corresponding simulation shows good agreement with the test.     

Fourier spectroscopy in planetary research

The application of Fourier Transform Spectroscopy (FTS) to planetary research is reviewed. The survey includes FTS observations of the Sun, all the planets except Uranus and Pluto, the Galilean satellites and Saturn's rings. Instrumentation and scientific results are considered. The prospects and limitations of FTS for planetary research in the forthcoming years are discussed.     

Saturn's Rings: pre-Cassini Status and Mission Goals

Theoretical and observational progress in studies of Saturn's ring system since the mid-1980s is reviewed, focussing on advances in configuration and dynamics, composition and size distribution, dust and meteoroids, interactions of the rings with the planet and the magnetosphere, and relationships between the rings and various satellites. The Cassini instrument suite of greatest relevance to ring studies is also summarized, emphasizing how the individual instruments might work together to solve outstanding problems. The Cassini tour is described from the standpoint of ring studies, and major ring science goals are summarized. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Energisation of O+ and O+ 2 Ions at Mars: An Analysis of a 3-D Quasi-Neutral Hybrid Model Simulation

We have studied the loss of O⁺ and O⁺ ₂ ions at Mars with a numerical model. In our quasi-neutral hybrid model ions (H⁺, He⁺⁺, O⁺, O⁺ ₂) are treated as particles while electrons form a massless charge-neutralising fluid. The employed model version does not include the Martian magnetic field resulting from the crustal magnetic anomalies. In this study we focus the Martian nightside where the ASPERA instrument on the Phobos-2 spacecraft and recently the ASPERA-3 instruments on the Mars Express spacecraft have measured the proprieties of escaping atomic and molecular ions, in particular O⁺ and O⁺ ₂ ions. We study the ion velocity distribution and how the escaping planetary ions are distributed in the tail. We also create similar types of energy-spectrograms from the simulation as were obtained from ASPERA-3 ion measurements. We found that the properties of the simulated escaping planetary ions have many qualitative and quantitative similarities with the observations made by ASPERA instruments. The general agreement with the observations suggest that acceleration of the planetary ions by the convective electric field associated with the flowing plasma is the key acceleration mechanism for the escaping ions observed at Mars.     

Resonantly Excited Non-linear Density Waves in Disk Systems

Most of the disk systems are characterized by spiral structures. A good portion of these spiral structures can be identified as waves resonantly excited by a perturber in or pertaining to the same system. For planetary rings, this is an exterior satellite; for galactic disks, a rotating bar; for proto-stellar disks (yet to be confirmed), this would be a proto-planet. These waves, not just responsible for the present morphology of the disks, also play a dominating role on evolution of the disks. Resonance excitation is a extremely effective mechanism. A relatively weak perturbation can result in a highly non-linear responses in the disk. Therefore, non-linear theory is a necessity here. We will examine the non-linear theory of resonance excitation and discuss the applications of the theory to Saturn's rings and disk galaxies in this paper.     

Magnetospheric and Plasma Science with Cassini-Huygens

Magnetospheric and plasma science studies at Saturn offer a unique opportunity to explore in-depth two types of magnetospheres. These are an ‘induced’ magnetosphere generated by the interaction of Titan with the surrounding plasma flow and Saturn's ‘intrinsic’ magnetosphere, the magnetic cavity Saturn's planetary magnetic field creates inside the solar wind flow. These two objects will be explored using the most advanced and diverse package of instruments for the analysis of plasmas, energetic particles and fields ever flown to a planet. These instruments will make it possible to address and solve a series of key scientific questions concerning the interaction of these two magnetospheres with their environment. The flow of magnetospheric plasma around the obstacle, caused by Titan's atmosphere/ionosphere, produces an elongated cavity and wake, which we call an ‘induced magnetosphere’. The Mach number characteristics of this interaction make it unique in the solar system. We first describe Titan's ionosphere, which is the obstacle to the external plasma flow. We then study Titan's induced magnetosphere, its structure, dynamics and variability, and discuss the possible existence of a small intrinsic magnetic field of Titan. Saturn's magnetosphere, which is dynamically and chemically coupled to all other components of Saturn's environment in addition to Titan, is then described. We start with a summary of the morphology of magnetospheric plasma and fields. Then we discuss what we know of the magnetospheric interactions in each region. Beginning with the innermost regions and moving outwards, we first describe the region of the main rings and their connection to the low-latitude ionosphere. Next the icy satellites, which develop specific magnetospheric interactions, are imbedded in a relatively dense neutral gas cloud which also overlaps the spatial extent of the diffuse E ring. This region constitutes a very interesting case of direct and mutual coupling between dust, neutral gas and plasma populations. Beyond about twelve Saturn radii is the outer magnetosphere, where the dynamics is dominated by its coupling with the solar wind and a large hydrogen torus. It is a region of intense coupling between the magnetosphere and Saturn's upper atmosphere, and the source of Saturn's auroral emissions, including the kilometric radiation. For each of these regions we identify the key scientific questions and propose an investigation strategy to address them. Finally, we show how the unique characteristics of the CASSINI spacecraft, instruments and mission profile make it possible to address, and hopefully solve, many of these questions. While the CASSINI orbital tour gives access to most, if not all, of the regions that need to be explored, the unique capabilities of the MAPS instrument suite make it possible to define an efficient strategy in which in situ measurements and remote sensing observations complement each other. Saturn's magnetosphere will be extensively studied from the microphysical to the global scale over the four years of the mission. All phases present in this unique environment — extended solid surfaces, dust and gas clouds, plasma and energetic particles — are coupled in an intricate way, very much as they are in planetary formation environments. This is one of the most interesting aspects of Magnetospheric and Plasma Science studies at Saturn. It provides us with a unique opportunity to conduct an in situ investigation of a dynamical system that is in some ways analogous to the dusty plasma environments in which planetary systems form. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

基于ADAMS的行星齿轮系刚柔耦合仿真局部缺陷识别

针对行星齿轮系在工作过程中出现的局部缺陷,将引起齿轮啮合异常,并导致冲击异常,其特征频率就会发生变化。现用ADAMS与ANSYS建立行星齿轮系的刚柔耦合模型,通过快速傅里叶变换（FFT）得到其啮合力的频域曲线,并分析无缺陷行星齿轮系的特征频率、行星轮齿局部缺陷的特征频率、太阳轮齿局部缺陷的特征频率。仿真结果与理论值吻合,说明了所建虚拟样机模型可靠,得到无缺陷行星齿轮系的特征频率是265.34Hz,行星轮齿局部缺陷的特征频率是17.67Hz,太阳轮齿局部缺陷的特征频率是36.13Hz,可用于识别行星齿轮系的行星轮或太阳轮局部缺陷。对行星齿轮系振动特性、可靠性的研究具有一定的指导意义。     

星际着陆自主障碍检测与规避技术

 为了在具有科学价值的复杂地形区域实现安全着陆,未来的星际着陆器必须具备自主障碍检测与规避的能力。从星际着陆导航传感器技术、自主障碍检测方法和自主障碍规避技术3个方面出发,对星际着陆自主障碍检测与规避技术进行较全面的分析和总结。首先,对适用于星际着陆自主障碍检测的各种主动式和被动式传感器的工作原理、优缺点进行较深入的阐述;接着,基于不同传感器的测量信息,对各种自主障碍检测方法的障碍检测能力、优缺点进行较详细的对比分析;然后,基于多信息融合的自主障碍检测方法,对安全着陆点选择的原则进行阐述;最后,对星际着陆自主障碍规避流程和适用于星际着陆自主障碍规避的制导控制方法进行较系统的总结。     

星型风扇驱动齿轮箱概念设计探讨

风扇驱动齿轮箱在齿轮传动涡扇发动机中发挥重要作用,为了支撑我国宽体客机发动机总体方案论证,进一步开展齿轮传动涡扇发动机的研制工作,以五路分流人字齿星型风扇驱动齿轮箱为研究对象开展概念设计。所设计的齿轮箱的主要结构特征为:太阳轮为浮动构件,通过花键传扭;行星轮采用齿轮/轴承一体化设计并选用调心滚子轴承;齿圈采用柔性支承,通过摩擦传扭。基于概念设计,本文总结并分析了后续研制过程中可能遇到的技术难点,包括传动效率、均载机构、支承与连接结构、齿面修形及系统动力学五个方面,为进一步开展风扇驱动齿轮箱的研制工作指出方向。     

A plasma wave investigation for the Voyager Mission

The Voyager Plasma Wave System (PWS) will provide the first direct information on wave-particle interactions and their effects at the outer planets. The data will give answers to fundamental questions on the dynamics of the Jupiter and Saturn magnetospheres and the properties of the distant interplanetary medium. Basic planetary dynamical processes are known to be associated with wave-particle interactions (for instance, solar wind particle heating at the bow shock, diffusion effects that allow magnetosheath plasma to populate the magnetospheres, various energization phenomena that convert thermal plasma of solar wind origin into trapped radiation, and precipitation mechanisms that limit the trapped particle populations). At Jupiter, plasma wave measurements will also lead to understanding of the key processes known to be involved in the decameter bursts such as the cooperative mechanisms that yield the intense radiation, the observed millisecond fine-structure, and the Io modulation effect. Similar phenomena should be associated with other planetary satellites or with Saturn's rings. Local diagnostic information (such as plasma densities) will be obtained from wave observations, and the PWS may detect lightning whistler evidence of atmospheric electrical discharges. The Voyager Plasma Wave System shares the 10-meter PRA antenna elements, and the signals are processed with a 16-channel spectrum analyzer, covering the range 10 Hz to 56 kHz. At selected times during the planetary encounters, the PWS broadband channel will operate with the Voyager video telemetry link to give complete electric field waveforms over the frequency range 50 Hz to 10 kHz.     

Radio science investigations with Voyager

The planned radio science investigations during the Voyager missions to the outer planets involve: (1) the use of the radio links to and from the spacecraft for occultation measurements of planetary and satellite atmospheres and ionospheres, the rings of Saturn, the solar corona, and the general-relativistic time delay for radiowave propagation through the Sun's gravity field; (2) radio link measurements of true or apparent spacecraft motion caused by the gravity fields of the planets, the masses of their larger satellites, and characteristics of the interplanetary medium; and (3) related measurements which could provide results in other areas, including the possible detection of long-wavelength gravitational radiation propagating through the Solar System. The measurements will be used to study: atmospheric and ionospheric structure, constituents, and dynamics; the sizes, radial distribution, total mass, and other characteristics of the particles in the rings of Saturn; interior models for the major planets and the mean density and bulk composition of a number of their satellites; the plasma density and dynamics of the solar corona and interplanetary medium; and certain fundamental questions involving gravitation and relativity. The instrumentation for these experiments is the same ground-based and spacecraft radio systems as will be used for tracking and communicating with the Voyager spacecraft, although several important features of these systems have been provided primarily for the radio science investigations.     

Dynamics and Composition of Rings

Planetary rings are found around all four giant planets of our solar system. These collisional and highly flattened disks exhibit a whole wealth of physical processes involving dust grains up to meter-sized boulders. These processes, together with ring composition, can help understand better the formation and evolution of proto-satellite and proto-planetary disks in the early solar system. The present chapter reviews some fundamental aspects of ring dynamics and composition. The forthcoming exploration of the Saturn system by the Cassini mission will bring both high resolution and time-dependent information on Saturn’s rings.     

The storm-time ring current

In this paper I am reviewing recent advances and open disputes in the study of the terrestrial ring current, with emphasis on its storm-time dynamics. The ring current is carried by energetic charged particles flowing toroidally around the Earth, and creating a ring of westward electric current, centered at the equatorial plane and extending from geocentric distances of about 2 R _E to roughly 9 R _E. This current has a permanent existence due to the natural properties of charged particles in the geospace environment, yet its intensity is variable. It becomes more intense during global electromagnetic disturbances in the near-Earth space, which are known as space (or magnetic or geomagnetic) storms. Changes in this current are responsible for global decreases in the Earth's surface magnetic field, which is the defining feature of geomagnetic storms. The ring current is a critical element in understanding the onset and development of space weather disturbances in geospace. Ring current physics has long been driven by several paradigms, similarly to other disciplines of space physics: the solar origin paradigm, the substorm-driver paradigm, the large-scale symmetry paradigm, the charge-exchange decay paradigm. The paper addresses these paradigms through older and recent important investigations.     

光纤陀螺热致漂移仿真分析及实验验证

外界温度场作用下,光纤环温度变化和热应力是引起光纤陀螺非互易误差的主要原因。分析了光纤陀螺热致漂移的数学模型,基于该模型仿真研究了对光纤环以恒定功率加热随后转入平稳状态扰动因素下陀螺的输出特性。为验证模型准确性,选用3个光纤环搭建光纤陀螺系统,并对陀螺零偏变化特性进行了测试。测试结果表明,各陀螺零偏测试值与模型计算值间的误差不超过8%,实验结果与模型能够较好符合,该研究结果对高精度光纤陀螺的设计具有重要指导意义。     

Electrical Charging of Volcanic Plumes

Many explosive terrestrial volcanic eruptions are accompanied by lightning and other atmospheric electrical phenomena. The plumes produced generate large perturbations in the surface atmospheric electric potential gradient and high charge densities have been measured on falling volcanic ash particles. The complex nature of volcanic plumes (which contain gases, solid particles, and liquid drops) provides several possible charging mechanisms. For plumes rich in solid silicate particles, fractoemission (the ejection of ions and atomic particles during fracture events) is probably the dominant source of charge generation. In other plumes, such as those created when lava enters the sea, different mechanisms, such as boiling, may be important. Further charging mechanisms may also subsequently operate, downwind of the vent. Other solar system bodies also show evidence for volcanism, with activity ongoing on Io. Consequently, volcanic electrification under different planetary scenarios (on Venus, Mars, Io, Moon, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione and Triton) is also discussed.