金星火山与气候探测任务

金星火山和气候探测任务（Venus Volcano Imaging and Climate Explorer,VOICE）聚焦金星火山与热演化历史、水与板块运动、内部结构和动力学、气候演化和生命信息探索等重大科学问题,提出采用极化合成孔径雷达（Polarimetric Synthetic Aperture Radar,PolSAR） 、下视与临边结合的微波辐射探测仪（Microwave Radiometric Sounder,MWRS）和紫外–可见–近红外多光谱成像仪（Ultraviolet-Visible-Near Infrared Multispectral Imager,UVN-MSI）等三个先进的有效载荷,在350 km圆轨道上对金星全球表面和大气联合探测。 PolSAR将对金星全球表面进行高分辨多极化雷达成像;MWRS将对金星全球云下大气的热力结构和化学组成,云中可能的宜居环境及与生命相关大气成分进行探测;UVN-MSI则实现大气全貌成像、表面光谱成像和闪电检测。通过多种先进探测载荷和技术手段的结合,VOICE任务将揭示金星构造热演化历史和超温室效应机理,探索其宜居性和生命信息。VOICE任务的实施将实现国际金星研究探索中许多“零”的突破,为理解行星宜居性和太阳系演化提供极为关键的观测支持,对提升中国在国际深空探测与空间科学研究中的地位产生重大影响。      

Neutral upper atmospheres of the outer planets

Several recent papers have reviewed the upper atmospheres and ionospheres of Jupiter and Saturn in the post Voyager era (see, e.g., /1/ and references therein). Therefore, this paper will review only the most salient characteristics, as far as Jupiter and Saturn are concerned. The emphasis here, however, is placed on the Uranus upper atmosphere that was probed in January, 1986, by Voyager 2 spacecraft. In particular comparative aspects of atmospheric composition, thermal structure, photochemistry and the vertical mixing are discussed.     

Advances in the Researches of the Middle and Upper Atmosphere in China

In this report we summarize the research results by Chinese scientists in 2018-2020. The focuses are placed on the researches of the middle and upper atmosphere, specifically the researches on atmospheric structure and composition, climate and chemistry-climate coupling and climate modelling, dynamics in particular those inducing the coupling of the atmospheric layers.      

Study of the Moon and comparative planetology: Problems and perspectives

On the base of the comparative planetologic study of the Moon and terrestrial planets two fundamental features of their history and structure have been established.Firstly, shell-like structure of the terrestrial planets could be understood only in the terms of the heterogeneous accretion theory. At the final stages of major terrestrial planet formation the leading role belonged to the planetosimals of carbonaceous chondritic composition. Secondly, there are two types of the crust on the planetary surface. Their formation are considered to be independent and differing in the geological time. The primary planetary crust of predominantly feldspathic composition is considered to form during the pregeologic period at the final stage of planetary formation due to the impact-explosive processes. The hydrosphere and atmosphere is thought to appear contemporaneously. The basaltic planetary crust is forming later due to the radioactive decay and superimposed on the primary feldspathic crust.     

行星大气1~3000GHz微波-亚毫米波辐射模拟

为模拟行星大气在微波elax-elax亚毫米波波段的辐射传输特性,利用逐线积分方法计算行星大气中各气体成分在1~3000GHz的吸收系数.基于HITRAN数据库中各气体分子的跃迁频率及线强等参数,有效模拟了各气体分子在此频段内的吸收特征,并与常用的微波elax-elax亚毫米波大气辐射传输模式进行对比.分析地球大气的组成及特性,利用辐射传输方程模拟临边探测方式下不同频段的大气辐射亮温.研究结果可为后续地球乃至行星大气成分探测模拟、频带选择以及大气成分廓线反演提供模型及理论依据.      

质谱计在行星系统与小天体探测中的应用

质谱计多次应用于行星系统和小天体的大气层与土壤吸附气体或挥发组分及其同位素含量探索,是太阳系行星系统和小天体探测计划中的首选载荷之一。大气和土壤元素及其同位素组分探测对资源勘探、行星系统的宜居性、天体演化、起源及其重要事件的精准时间坐标研究等具有重要意义。质谱计已多次成功应用于火星、土星系、木星系、彗星等探测任务中开展大气环境探测。质谱计的探测对象主要包括太阳系行星、行星卫星如月球、木星伽利略卫星、土卫,以及地外小行星和彗星。四极杆质谱计在当前的深空空间环境探测活动中应用最为广泛。利用四极杆质谱计除可用于探测稀薄天体大气与土壤析出气体外,如增加抽真空能力的前端设计,则具备探测稠密大气成分的能力。中科院空间中心研发的星载质谱计已多次成功应用于地球行星大气成分和密度探测。     

The origin of cosmic rays as viewed from their source composition

Based on the fact that the chemical composition of cosmic rays in their sources is similar to that of the interstellar clouds or grains which are relatively rich in refractory and siderophile elements as compared to the chemical composition of the solar atmosphere, it is shown that cosmic ray source matter can be identified as the dusts or grains observed in the envelope of red supergiants or the matter originally ejected from supernova explosions and that it must have passed through a state as reaching to 1000K or less in temperature.     

Multifunctional Martian habitat composite material synthesized from in situ resources

The two primary requirements for a Martian habitat structure include effective radiation shielding against the Galactic Cosmic Ray (GCR) environment and sufficient structural and thermal integrity. To significantly reduce the cost associated with transportation of such materials and structures from earth, it is imperative that such building materials should be synthesized primarily from Martian in situ resources. This paper illustrates the feasibility of such an approach. Experimental results are discussed to demonstrate the synthesis of polyethylene (PE) from a simulated Martian atmosphere and the fabrication of a composite material using simulated Martian regolith with PE as the binding material. The radiation shielding effectiveness of the proposed composites is analyzed using results from radiation transport codes and exposure of the samples to high-energy beams that serve as a terrestrial proxy for the GCR environment. Mechanical and ballistic impact resistance properties of the proposed composite as a function of composition, processing parameters, and thermal variations are also discussed to evaluate the multifunctionality of such in situ synthesized composite materials.     

Composition of the Venus atmosphere below 100 km altitude

Our current knowledge on the composition of the Venus atmosphere in the altitude range from the surface to 100 km is compiled. Gases that have been measured, and whose mixing ratios are assumed to be constant with altitude, are CO₂, N₂, He, Ne, Ar, and Kr. Gases that have been identified in the lower and/or middle atmosphere, but whose mixing ratios may depend on altitude, latitude and/or local time, are CO, H₂O, HCl, HF, and SO₂. Conflicting data or only upper limits exist on some important trace gases, such as O₂, H₂, and Cl₂. The latter two are key constituents in the photochemistry of the middle atmosphere of Venus. The chapter concludes with a listing of the isotopic abundances of elements measured in the Venus atmosphere.     

On the structure and dynamics of the thermosphere

Thermospheric temperature, composition and wind measurements from the Dynamics Explorer satellite (DE-2) are interpreted using a three dimensional, multiconstituent spectral model. The analysis accounts for tides driven by the absorbed solar radiation as well as energy and momentum coupling involving the magnetosphere and lower atmosphere. We discuss phenomena associated with the annual tide, polar circulation, magnetic storms and substorms.     

Raman scattering as a probe of planetary atmospheres

The observable effects of Raman scattering on the spectra of the giant planets may provide new information on the composition and structure of these atmospheres. Satellite observations have already shown the influence of Raman scattering on the UV continuum albedo. A cross correlation technique is presented for detecting rotational and vibrational transitions of the Raman active gases in the atmosphere. This technique has been applied to ground-based visible spectra of Venus, Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus. Extension of this method into the UV would improve the detectability of the Raman lines because the ratio of Raman to Rayleigh cross section increases with decreasing wavelength. The technology currently exists to efficiently obtain high signal-to-noise ratio UV spectra through the use of silicon diode array detectors. Application of the cross-correlation technique to UV spectra obtained from space vehicles would give us a new important probe of the structure and composition of planetary atmospheres by enabling us to use the UV spectra of a planet to observe that would normally be an infrared molecular transition.     

Models of Venus neutral upper atmosphere: Structure and composition

Models of the Venus neutral upper atmosphere, based on both in-situ and remote sensing measurements, are provided for the height interval from 100 to 3,500 km. The general approach in model formulation was to divide the atmosphere into three regions: 100 to 150 km, 150 to 250 km, and 250 to 3,500 km. Boundary conditions at 150 km are consistent with both drag and mass spectrometer measurements. A paramount consideration was to keep the models simple enough to be used conveniently. Available observations are reviewed. Tables are provided for density, temperature, composition (CO₂, O, CO, He, N, N₂, and H), derived quantities, and day-to-day variability as a function of solar zenith angle on the day- and nightsides.Estimates are made of other species, including O₂ and D. Other tables provide corrections for solar activity effects on temperature, composition, and density. For the exosphere, information is provided on the vertical distribution of normal thermal components (H, O, C, and He) as well as the hot components (H, N, C, O) on the day- and nightsides.     

On the diurnal variations in the temperature and composition: a three-dimensional model with superrotation

Based on a simplified theoretical interpretation of the composition measurements with the ONMS and OIMS experiments on Pioneer Venus, the conclusion was drawn that the rotation rate of the thermosphere should be close (within a factor of two) to that of the lower atmosphere. A more realistic three-dimensional model of the thermosphere dynamics is now being developed, considering non-linear processes, higher order modes and collisional momentum exchange between the major species CO₂, CO and O, which describes the diurnal variations in temperature and composition (Niemann et al., $\text{JGR}$, 1980). The computed horizontal winds are about 300 m/sec near the terminators and poles. Results are also presented from a two-dimensional (quasi-axisymmetric) spectral model which describes the four day superrotation in the lower atmosphere of Venus.     

Performance and early results from the stratospheric and mesospheric sounder (SAMS) on Nimbus 7

The design and performance of SAMS, an infrared limb-scanning instrument for sounding the temperature and composition of the atmosphere from 15 to 150 km altitude, are reviewed. Some examples of preliminary results on temperature and water vapour and nitrous oxide abundance versus latitude and height are presented.     

Structure of the atmospheres of Mars and Venus below 100 kilometers

The present state of knowledge of the structure of the atmospheres of Mars and Venus below 100 km is reviewed. Both atmospheres have been characterized to a remarkable degree, considering their remoteness from Earth. Mars' atmosphere is more variable, and less well defined. The variability is seasonal, diurnal, and latitude dependent, and also is strongly affected by atmospheric dust. Venus' atmosphere is less variable and better defined, as a result of numerous spacecraft missions. Mars' atmosphere is generally statically stable from the surface to 100 km, and its temperatures are controlled by radiative transfer moderated by vertical flow. Venus' lower atmosphere is stratified, with stable layers predominating. Its temperatures also are controlled by radiation and vertical motion. Thermal tidal motions occur in both atmospheres at about the same pressure levels, with larger amplitudes at Venus, consistent with the larger solar input at Venus.     

Thermospheric storm effects

A brief review is given of our current understanding of the atmospheric perturbations in the thermosphere and exosphere that are related to geomagnetic disturbances and of current efforts to represent these in empirical models of the upper atmosphere. A particular model, based on ESRO4 mass spectrometer observations of neutral composition and density, is presented in detail. This model gives the effects on the principal constituents of the upper atmosphere as a function of the geomagnetic coordinates and the K_p geomagnetic index. It is a modification of an earlier model, the most important difference being the inclusion of the variation with magnetic local time.     

Modeling the (upper) solar atmosphere including the magnetic field

The atmosphere of the Sun is highly structured and dynamic in nature. From the photosphere and chromosphere into the transition region and the corona plasma-β changes from above to below one, i.e., while in the lower atmosphere the energy density of the plasma dominates, in the upper atmosphere the magnetic field plays the governing role – one might speak of a “magnetic transition”. Therefore the dynamics of the overshooting convection in the photosphere, the granulation, is shuffling the magnetic field around in the photosphere. This leads not only to a (re-)structuring of the magnetic field in the upper atmosphere, but induces also the dynamic reaction of the coronal plasma, e.g., due to reconnection events. Therefore the (complex) structure and the interaction of various magnetic patches is crucial to understand the structure, dynamics and heating of coronal plasma as well as its acceleration into the solar wind.

The present article will emphasize the need for three-dimensional modeling accounting for the complexity of the solar atmosphere to understand these processes. Some advances on 3D modeling of the upper solar atmosphere in magnetically closed as well as open regions will be presented together with diagnostic tools to compare these models to observations. This highlights the recent success of these models which in many respects closely match the observations.     

Relative abundance of H and He in outer ionosphere

A mathematical model is used to study the relative abundance of H⁺ and He⁺ ions in the topside ionosphere. It is found that the daytime light-ion densities are strongly coupled with the neutral densities. This fact arises difficulties in modelling the ion composition for IRI without taking into account any particular reference atmosphere. As an example, the transition heights between O⁺---H⁺ and O⁺---He⁺ are shown, plotted against the neutral densities. The supposed linear dependance gives a clear evidence that all light-ion ionization below these heights will experience stronger influence by the neutral atmosphere.     

The physical nature of Titan's aerosols: laboratory simulations.

The atmosphere of Titan is known to contain aerosols, as evidenced by the Voyager observations of at least three haze layers. Such aerosols can have significant effects on the reflection spectrum of Titan and on the chemistry and thermal structure of its atmosphere. To investigate some of these effects, laboratory simulations of the chemistry of Titan's atmosphere have been done. The results of these studies show that photolysis of acetylene, ethylene, and hydrogen cyanide, known constituents of Titan's atmosphere, yields sub-micron sized spheres, with mean diameters ranging from 0.4 to 0.8 microns, depending on the pressures of the reactant gases. Most of the spheres are contained in near-linear aggregates. The formation of the aggregates is consistent with models of Titan's reflection spectrum and polarization, which are best fit with non-spherical particles. At room temperature, the particles are very sticky, but their properties at low temperatures on Titan are presently not known.     

Analytical approach to cosmic ray ionization by nuclei with charge Z in the middle atmosphere – Distribution of galactic CR effects

The effects of galactic and solar cosmic rays (CR) in the middle atmosphere are considered in this work. A new analytical approach for CR ionization by protons and nuclei with charge Z in the lower ionosphere and middle atmosphere is developed in this paper. For this purpose the ionization losses (dE/dh) according to the Bohr–Bethe–Bloch formula for the energetic charged particles are approximated in three different energy intervals. More accurate expressions for energy decrease E(h) and electron production rate profiles q(h) are derived. The obtained formulas allow comparatively easy computer programming. The integrand in q(h) gives the possibility for application of adequate numerical methods – such as Romberg method or Gauss quadrature, for the solution of the mathematical problem. On this way the process of interaction of cosmic ray particles with the upper, middle and lower atmosphere will be described much more realistically. Computations for cosmic ray ionization in the middle atmosphere are made. The full CR composition is taken into account: protons, Helium (α-particles), light L, medium M, heavy H and very heavy VH group of nuclei.