美国商业航天中的政企关系

正商业航天是指按照市场规则配置技术、资金、人才等资源要素,以盈利为目的、独立的非政府航天活动。美国在太空发射与运输领域的立法基本反映了美国太空发射商业化历程,而美国太空发射与运输领域的商业化历程基本也可以反映美国整个商业航天的发展历程。在美国一系列促进太空商业化的法规政策支持下,太空探索技术公司、蓝色起源等商业公司的     

美国载人航天商业化研究（下）

随着近地轨道实现大规模设施的建造部署,人类长期驻留等技术的日臻成熟,以及可重复使用技术的快速发展,商业化、产业化逐步具备条件,太空旅游、近地轨道商业运输和空间应用成为未来发展热点。以美国为主的航天国家积极推进载人航天商业化,近地轨道载人航天私营机构能力建设已初见成效,太空探索技术公司、轨道科学公司（现更名为轨道-阿连特技术系统公司,简称轨道-ATK公司）实现近地轨道货物运输常态化;波音公司、太空探索技术公司有望于2017年实现近地轨道商业乘员运输;XCOR宇航公司、维珍银河公司等多家商业公司即将提供太空旅游产品和服务。此外,美国提出商业空间站计划,并积极拓展月球以远的商业探索模式。载人航天领域的商业化是随着美国商业航天市场规模不断扩大、体系不断完善衍生出来的,也是美国载人航天降低成本、鼓励创新、提升竞争力的一个重要途径。     

美国载人航天商业化研究（中）

随着近地轨道实现大规模设施的建造部署,人类长期驻留等技术的日臻成熟,以及可重复使用技术的快速发展,商业化、产业化逐步具备条件,太空旅游、近地轨道商业运输和空间应用成为未来发展热点。以美国为主的航天国家积极推进载人航天商业化,近地轨道载人航天私营机构能力建设已初见成效,太空探索技术公司、轨道科学公司（现更名为轨道-阿连特技术系统公司,简称轨道-ATK公司）实现近地轨道货物运输常态化;波音公司、太空探索技术公司有望于2017年实现近地轨道商业乘员运输;XCOR宇航公司、维珍银河公司等多家商业公司即将提供太空旅游产品和服务。此外,美国提出商业空间站计划,并积极拓展月球以远的商业探索模式。载人航天领域的商业化是随着美国商业航天市场规模不断扩大、体系不断完善衍生出来的,也是美国载人航天降低成本、鼓励创新、提升竞争力的一个重要途径。     

美国新的商业航天政策

2月8日,美国总统布什签署了新的商业航天政策,它是美国政府机构今后处理有关商业性航天事务的指南。它要求政府机构鼓励商业航天企事业单位发展,只要它们的活动与国家活动和外交政策的利益一致,与国际和国内的法律义务一致,与政府的政策要求一致。政策包括了美国禁止导弹扩散的规定。美国新的商业航天政策有8点内容: 一、政府机构应最大限度地将可利用的航天产品和服务投入商业性     

美国载人航天商业化研究(上)

1 美国商业载人航天政策及管理模式 美国早在20世纪八九十年代已奠定商业载人航天运输的基础,从国家层面制定了商业航天法规政策,明确了商业航天在国家中的地位和作用,指定专门机构对商业航天活动进行管理,使得商业航天能够安全、有效地服务国家各行业发展.     

2014年回顾世界航天发展

1有关国家航天战略规划
　　美国以保持“领导地位”为目标,全面推进航天发展。在军事航天方面,以建立太空新秩序、塑造未来战略环境为战略重心,主导空间行为准则制定,打造太空利益联盟,将融合军民商和多国航天能力的弹性与分散空间体系作为军用航天发展首要事项。2014年持续推进“空间现代化计划”（SMI）,已确定在军事通信、导弹预警、战场环境等领域向分散与弹性体系转型,进入系统方案论证阶段。在民用航天方面,着重技术创新引领发展,发布《2014年美国航空航天局战略规划》,强调利用创新途径开展空间科学和空间探索。白宫首次出台《民用对地观测国家规划》,以天基为重点,从全球视野对美国对地观测系统全面规划,提出“地球大数据计划”（BEDI）,支撑地球科学和技术创新发展。在商业航天方面,加强政策保障和引导,完成了航天出口管制阶段性终稿,大量内容转到《商业管制清单》中,解除了企业参与全球竞争的政策束缚,提升了企业全球竞争力,但实行“中国例外”政策,修订遥感数据政策,商业遥感卫星图像分辨率许可限制放宽到0.25m。     

美国商业航天发射市场政府管理与启示

正面对滚滚而来的商业化潮流,如何走出符合我国航天自身特点的商业化发展道路,是每一个航天从业者都需要思考的问题。本文通过分析与解读美国在航天商业化发展道路中采取的各项措施及取得的成果和经验,从中得出部分有益于我国商业航天市场发展的思考和建议。     

2023年国外商业对地观测卫星发展综述

<正>2023年,主要航天国家商业对地观测卫星已呈现出竞相发展的态势,美国持续保持领先地位,欧洲加速发展商业对地观测卫星,俄罗斯、日本和印度也迈出商业对地观测卫星的发展步伐。在系统技术方面,国外商业对地观测卫星持续呈现星座化发展趋势,商业合成孔径雷达（SAR）卫星领域发展迅猛,分辨率直追甚至超过商业光学卫星,气象、射频定位和高光谱成像等新型商业卫星成为新的增长点。     

中国航天商业化及法律政策问题研究

正中国航天历经几十年的发展取得了不小的成就,目前正力争将航天大国建设成航天强国。但是,国家层面重视程度不够,对私营企业限制过多,相关法律法规不健全等问题制约着我国航天商业化的发展。本文通过分析中国航天商业化现状,比较美国和欧洲航天商业化的发展,为我国航天商业化之路和相关法律政策提出相应的对策,助力实现"航天强国"的目标。     

美国航天发展的新战略、新政策及新趋势

□□2010年6月28日,美国政府发布了新制订的《美国国家航天政策》这是奥巴马政府向世界宣布美国未来航天发展策略的宣言。新航天政策强调航天事业的国际合作和商业化,而对美国太空军备控制的国际条约阐述较少,其进步意义在于为和平利用太空打开了一扇门。     

The C.E.B.A.S.-Minimodule: behaviour of an artificial aquatic ecological system during spaceflight.

The C.E.B.A.S.-Minimodule, a closed aquatic ecosystem integrated into a middeck locker and consisting of a Zoological (animal tanks), a Botanical (plant bioreactor), a Microbial (bacteria filter) and an Electronic Component (data acquisition/control system) was flown on the STS-89 spaceshuttle mission in January 1998 for 9 days. Preflight the plant bioreactor was loaded with 53 g of Ceratophyllum demersum (coontail) and the animal tanks with 4 adult pregnant females of the fish, Xiphophorus helleri (sword-tails), 200 juveniles of the same species less than 1 week of age, 38 large and 30 juvenile Biomphalaria glabrata water snails. The filter compartment was filled with 200 g of lava grain inoculated with laboratory strains of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. A ground reference was undertaken with the same biological setup with a delay of 4 d. After an adaptation period of 5 d the system was closed and integrated into the spaceshuttle one day before launch. Video recordings of the animals were automatically taken for 10 minutes in 2-hour periods; the tapes were changed daily by the astronauts. The chemical and physical data for the aquatic system were within the expected range and were closely comparable in comparison to the ground reference. After 9 d under space conditions, the plant biomass increased to 117 g. The plants were all found in very good condition. All 4 adult female fish were retrieved in a good physiological condition. The juvenile fishes had a survival rate of about 33%. Almost 97% of the snails had survived and produced more than 250 neonates and 40 spawning packs. All samples were distributed according to a defined schedule and satisfied all scientific needs of the involved 12 principal investigators. This was the first successful spaceflight of an artificial aquatic ecosystem containing vertebrates, invertebrates, higher plants and microorganisms self-sustained by its inhabitants only. C.E.B.A.S. in a modified form and biological setup is a promising candidate for the early space station utilization as a first midterm experiment.     

C.E.B.A.S. MINI MODULE: test results of an artificial (man-made) aquatic ecosystem.

The original Closed Equilibrated Biological Aquatic System (C.E.B.A.S.) is a long-term multi-generation research facility for experiments with aquatic animals and plants in a space station the development of which is surrounded by a large international scientific program. In addition, a miniaturized laboratory prototype, the C.E.B.A.S. MINI MODULE, with a total volume of about 10-12 liters for a Spacelab middeck locker was developed and a first version was tested successfully for two weeks with a population of fishes (Xiphophorus helleri) in the animal tank and a Ceratophyllum spec. in the illuminated higher plant growth chamber. The water recycling system consisted of a bacteria filter and a mechanical filter and the silastic tubing gas exchanger was separated by valves for the utilization in emergency cases only. Data were collected with the acquisition module of the original C.E.B.A.S. process control system. In addition, an optimized version was tested for 7 weeks with fishes and plants and thereafter with fish and with plants only for 2 and 1 weeks, resp.. The paper presents the relevant water parameters (e.g., pH, pressure, temperature, oxygen saturation, flow rate, ion concentrations) during the test period as well as morphological and physiological data of the enclosed animals and plants. On the basis of the given results the possible role of the C.E.B.A.S. system as a scientific tool in artificial ecosystem research and for the development of a combined animal-plant intensive aquaculture system and its utilization in bioregenerative life support is discussed.     

V.L.A. observations of flare build-up in coronal loops

Very Large Array (V.L.A.) measurements at 20 cm wavelength map emission from coronal loops with second-of-arc angular resolution at time intervals as short as 3.3 seconds. The total intensity of the 20 cm emission describes the evolution and structure of the hot plasma that is detected by satellite X-ray observations of coronal loops. The circular polarization of the 20 cm emission describes the evolution, strength and structure of the coronal magnetic field. Preburst heating and magnetic changes that precede burst emission on time scales of between 1 and 30 minutes are discussed. Simultaneous 20 cm and soft X-ray observations indicate an electron temperature $\text{T}{}_{\mathrm{e}}\textcolor{red}{}\text{2.5 × 10}{}^7\text{K}$ and electron density $\text{N}{}_{\mathrm{e}}\textcolor{red}{}\text{10}{}^{10}\text{cm}{}^{\mathrm{?3}}$ during preburst heating in a coronal loop that was also associated with twisting of the entire loop in space. We also discuss the successive triggering of bursts from adjacent coronal loops; highly polarized emission from the legs of loops with large intensity changes over a 32 MHz change in observing frequency; and apparent motions of hot plasma within coronal loops at velocities V > 2,000 kilometerspersecond.     

2005年全球反恐特警队赛记

2005年3月30日到4月2日为期4天，在美国拉斯维加斯举行的全球特警挑战赛（Original World SWAT Challenge,OWSC）中，总计有18支队伍参赛。[编者按]     

Aquatic modules for bioregenerative life support systems: developmental aspects based on the space flight results of the C.E.B.A.S. MIN-MODULE.

The Closed Equilibrated Biological Aquatic System (C.E.B.A.S.) is an artificial aquatic ecosystem which contains teleost fishes, water snails, ammonia oxidizing bacteria and edible non-gravitropic water plants. It serves as a model for aquatic food production modules which are not seriously affected by microgravity and other space conditions. Its space flight version, the so-called C.E.B.A.S. MINI-MODULE was already successfully tested in the STS-89 and STS-90 (NEUROLAB) missions. It will be flown a third time in space with the STS-107 mission in January 2003. All results obtained so far in space indicate that the basic concept of the system is more than suitable to drive forward its development. The C.E.B.A.S. MINI-MODULE is located within a middeck locker with limited space for additional components. These technical limitations allow only some modifications which lead to a maximum experiment time span of 120 days which is not long enough for scientifically essential multi-generation-experiments. The first necessary step is the development of "harvesting devices" for the different organisms. In the limited space of the plant bioreactor a high biomass production leads to self-shadowing effects which results in an uncontrolled degradation and increased oxygen consumption by microorganisms which will endanger the fishes and snails. It was shown already that the latter reproduce excellently in space and that the reproductive functions of the fish species are not affected. Although the parent-offspring-cannibalism of the ovoviviparous fish species (Xiphophorus helleri) serves as a regulating factor in population dynamics an uncontrolled snail reproduction will also induce an increased oxygen consumption per se and a high ammonia concentration in the water. If harvesting locks can be handled by astronauts in, e. g., 4-week intervals their construction is not very difficult and basic technical solutions are already developed. The second problem is the feeding of the animals. Although C.E.B.A.S.-based aquaculture modules are designed to be closed food loop systems (edible herbivorous fish species and edible water plants) which are already verified on Earth this will not be possible in space without devices in which the animals are fed from a food storage. This has to be done at least once daily which would waste too much crew time when done by astronauts. So, the development of a reliable automated food dispenser has highest priority. Also in this case basic technical solutions are already elaborated. The paper gives a comprehensive overview of the proposed further C.E.B.A.S.-based development of longer-term duration aquatic food production modules.     

Summary of radiation dosimetry results on U.S. and Soviet manned spacecraft.

Measurements of the radiation environment aboard U.S. and Soviet manned spacecraft are reviewed and summarized. Data obtained mostly from passive and some active radiation detectors now exist for the case of low Earth-orbit missions. Major uncertainties still exist for space exposure in high altitude, high inclination, geostationary orbits, in connection with solar effects and that of shielding. Data from active detectors flown in Spacelabs 1 and 2 suggest that a variety of phenomena must be understood before the effects of long-term exposure at the space-station type of orbit and shielding can be properly assessed.     

I.U.E. high resolution observations of hot stars emitting coronal x-rays

The far UV resonance lines of a sample of 21 early-type stars, which were observed in the soft X-Ray band with the $\text{Einstein}$ satellite, are examined using I.U.E. high resolution spectra to search for possible correlation between the X-Ray coronal emission and far UV spectral properties. In particular, those quantities that can give information on the structure of the outer envelope (such as wind terminal velocities, emission-absorption ratios) are measured and compared with the observed X-Ray flux.     

Indirect search for Dark Matter with H.E.S.S.

Observations of the Galactic center region with the H.E.S.S. telescopes have established the existence of a steady, extended source of gamma-ray emission coinciding with the position of the super massive black hole Sgr A^*. This is a remarkable finding given the expected presence of dense self-annihilating Dark Matter in the Galactic center region. The self-annihilation process is giving rise to gamma-ray production through hadronization including the production of neutral pions which decay into gamma-rays but also through (loop-suppressed) annihilation into final states of almost mono-energetic photons. We study the observed gamma-ray signal (spectrum and shape) from the Galactic center in the context of Dark Matter annihilation and indicate the prospects for further indirect Dark Matter searches with H.E.S.S.     

Pigment composition and concentrations within the plant (Ceratophyllum demersum L.) component of the STS-89 C.E.B.A.S. Mini-Module spaceflight experiment.

The Closed Equilibrated Biological Aquatic System (C.E.B.A.S.) Mini-Module, a Space Shuttle middeck locker payload which supports a variety of aquatic inhabitants (fish, snails, plants and bacteria) in an enclosed 8.6 L chamber, was tested for its biological stability in microgravity. The aquatic plant, Ceratophyllum demersum L., was critical for the vitality and functioning of this artificial mini-ecosystem. Its photosynthetic pigment concentrations were of interest due to their light harvesting and protective functions. "Post-flight" chlorophyll and carotenoid concentrations within Ceratophyllum apical segments were directly related to the quantities of light received in the experiments, with microgravity exposure (STS-89) failing to account for any significant deviation from ground control studies.     

The Comet Halley flyby I.R. sounder “I.K.S.”

An infrared sounder is being developed in France to observe in 1986 Comet Halley from the Soviet “VEGA” flyby probes. The instrument, called “I.K.S.”, has three measuring channels. Two of these channels will provide the spectrum of the comet emission in the spectral intervals 2.5–5.0 μ and 6–12 μ, at a constant resolution λ/Δλ = 50.The third channel analyzes the comet I.R. image at a spatial frequency of about 1 arc minute^?1; two I.R. colours are used in this channel: 7–10 μ and 10–14 μ. From the results expected, it is hoped that (1) most primary simple molecules emitted by the nucleus will be identified; (2) the chemical composition and perhaps crystalline structure of the dust grains and ices released by the comet will be derived; and (3) the diameter of the nucleus and its brightness temperatures will be measured.