The evolution of lipids.

Living organisms on the Earth which are divided into three major domains--Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya, probably came from a common ancestral cell. Because there are many thermophilic microorganisms near the root of the universal phylogenetic tree, the common ancestral cell should be considered to be a thermophilic microorganism. The existence of a cell is necessary for the living organisms; the cell membrane is the essential structural component of a cell, so its amphiphilic property is vital for the molecule of lipids for cell membranes. Tetraether type glycerophospholipids with C40 isoprenoid chains are major membrane lipids widely distributed in archaeal cells. Cyclization number of C40 isoprenoid chains in thermophilic archaea influences the fluidity of lipids whereas the number of carbons and degree of unsaturation in fatty acids do so in bacteria and eucarya. In addition to the cyclization of the tetraether lipids, covalent bonding of two C40 isoprenoid chains was found in hyperthermophiles. These characteristic structures of the lipids seem to contribute to their fundamental physiological roles in hyperthermophiles. Stereochemical differences between G-1-P archaeal lipids and G-3-P bacterial and eucaryal lipids might have occurred by the function of some proteins long after the first cell was developed by the reactions of small organic molecules. We propose that the structure of lipids of the common ancestral cell may have been similar to those of hyperthermophilic archaea.     

Radiation and thermal stabilities of adenine nucleotides.

We have investigated in detail radiation and thermal stabilities and transformations of adenosine mono- and triphosphates in liquid and frozen solid aqueous solutions within a wide range of absorbed radiation dose (up to 75 kGy) and temperature (up to 160 degrees C). Dephosphorylation is the main pathway of high temperature hydrolysis of adenine nucleotides. Basic thermodynamic and kinetic parameters of this process have been determined. Radiolysis of investigated compounds at room temperature results in scission of N-glycosidic bond with a radiation yield about of 1 mol/100 eV. Solution freezing significantly enhances radiation stability of nucleotides as well as other biomolecules. This circumstance is essential in the discussion of panspermia concepts.     

Prebiotic synthesis and reactions of nucleosides and nucleotides.

Diiminosuccinonitrile (DISN) has been investigated as a potential prebiotic phosphorylating agent. It is formed readily by the oxidation of diaminomaleonitrile (DAMN), a tetramer of HCN. DISN effects the cyclization of 3'-adenosine monophosphate to adenosine 2',3'-cyclic phosphace in up to 40% yield. The DISN-mediated phosphorylation of uridine to uridine mono-phosphate does not proceed efficiently in aqueous solution. The reaction of DISN and BrCN with uridine-5'-phosphate and uridine results in the formation of 2,2'-anhydronucleotides and 2,2'-anhydronucleosides respectively, and other reaction products resulting from an initial reaction at the 2'- and 3'-hydroxyl groups. The clay mineral catalysis of the cyclization of adenosine-3'-phosphate was investigated using homoionic montmorillonites.     

The evolution of globular clusters

Taking a wide range of the initial conditions, including spatial density distribution and mass function etc, the dynamical evolution of globular clusters in the Milky Way is investigated in detail by means of Monte Carlo simulations. Four dynamic mechanisms are considered: stellar evaporation, stellar evolution, tidal shocks due to both the disk and bulge, and dynamical friction. It is found that stellar evaporation dominates the evolution of low-mass clusters and all four are important for massive ones. For both the power-law and lognormal initial clusters mass functions, we can find the best-fit models which can match the present-day observations with their main features of the mass function almost unchanged after evolution of several Gyr. This implies that it is not possible to determine the initial mass function only based on the observed ones today. Moreover, the dispersion of the modelled mass functions mainly depends on the potential wells of host galaxies with the almost constant peaks, which is consistent with current observations.     

Role of trace metal ions in chemical evolution. The case of free-radical reactions.

We have studied the effect of iron in the free-radical oligomerization of hydrogen cyanide and acetic acid, and found that iron(II) and iron(III) readily reduces or oxidizes free radicals, respectively. The transient species produced by these reactions do not induce a chain oligomerization process and, therefore, they protect the solute molecules from degradation. Analysis of the available kinetic data for the reactions of a variety of transition metal ions with free radicals indicate that transition metal ions behave similarly to iron. Since Fe, Zn and Mo are essential to all living organisms, and there seems to be no apparent difference in chemical reactivity among transition metal ions towards free radicals, we suggest that these metal ions probably protected the biomolecules from degradation induced by free-radical reactions in the later stages of chemical evolution.     

The fast debris evolution model

The ‘particles-in-a-box’ (PIB) model introduced by Talent [Talent, D.L. Analytic model for orbital debris environmental management. J. Spacecraft Rocket, 29 (4), 508–513, 1992.] removed the need for computer-intensive Monte Carlo simulation to predict the gross characteristics of an evolving debris environment. The PIB model was described using a differential equation that allows the stability of the low Earth orbit (LEO) environment to be tested by a straightforward analysis of the equation’s coefficients. As part of an ongoing research effort to investigate more efficient approaches to evolutionary modelling and to develop a suite of educational tools, a new PIB model has been developed. The model, entitled Fast Debris Evolution (FADE), employs a first-order differential equation to describe the rate at which new objects ?10 cm are added and removed from the environment. Whilst Talent [Talent, D.L. Analytic model for orbital debris environmental management. J. Spacecraft Rocket, 29 (4), 508–513, 1992.] based the collision theory for the PIB approach on collisions between gas particles and adopted specific values for the parameters of the model from a number of references, the form and coefficients of the FADE model equations can be inferred from the outputs of future projections produced by high-fidelity models, such as the DAMAGE model.     

Abiogenic synthesis of pyrimidine nucleotides in solid state by vacuum ultraviolet radiation.

The abiogenic synthesis of pyrimidine nucleotides in solid state has been investigated. Our experiment indicates that natural nucleotides are produced in thin films prepared from nucleoside and inorganic phosphate by irradiating with vacuum ultraviolet light (VUV, lambda=100-200 nm). We have investigated the influence of the type of nucleic acids base (thymidine, cytosine, uracil) and the structure of sugar moiety (ribose or deoxyribose) on the course and yield of reaction. We compared the action of vacuum ultraviolet light with action of gamma-radiation, heat and biology significant UV (254 nm) which have been investigated earlier. The occurrence of these reaction in open space is discussed.     

Prebiotic synthesis of nucleotides at the Earth orbit in presence of Lunar soil.

Modern studies now favor the fact that extraterrestrial organic molecules served as an important source of biological important substances on the primitive Earth. It is presumed that these space-made organic molecules could be transported safely to the Earth surface being associated with mineral grains. It is important to test whether nucleotides synthesized in Earth orbit could be protected by lunar surface regolite. The phosphorylation of adenosine, uridine and thymidine has been studied with respect of their further transformations and degradation in presence of mineral bed. After retrieval, HPLC analysis is used to identify all the mononucleotides of certain nucleosides. It has been shown, that exposure of the investigated nucleosides as dry films in space conditions in the presence of Lunar soil increases the yield of synthesized nucleotides in 1.1-3.0 times as compared with the exposure of the same samples in absence of Lunar soil. To identify and evaluate the principal source of energy in open space responsible for nucleotide synthesis reaction laboratory experiments were performed. It has been shown, that vacuum ultra violet (VUV 145 nm) radiation promotes nucleotide synthesis more effectively than ultra violet (UV 254 nm) while the presence of Lunar soil increases reaction yield in 1.5-2.0 times. Formation of 5'-mononucleotides seemed to be the most effective reaction both in flight and in laboratory experiments. Protective action of lunar soil on synthesized nucleotides against UV radiation has been shown in open Space conditions.     

Chemical evolution and the origin of life.

During the last three decades major advances have been made in our understanding of the formation of carbon compounds in the universe and of the occurence of processes of chemical evolution. 1) Carbon and other biogenic elements (C,H,N,O,S and P) are some of the most abundant in the universe. 2) The interstellar medium has been found to contain a diversity of molecules of these elements. 3) Some of these molecules have also been found in comets which are considered the most primordial bodies of the solar system. 4) The atmospheres of the outer planets and their satellites, for example, Titan, are actively involved in the formation of organic compounds which are the precursors of biochemical molecules. 5) Some of these biochemical molecules, such as amino acids, purines and pyrimidines, have been found in carbonaceous chondrites. 6) Laboratory experiments have shown that most of the monomers and oligomers necessary for life can be synthesized under hypothesized but plausible primitive Earth conditions from compounds found in the above cosmic bodies. 7) It appears that the primitive Earth had the necessary and sufficient conditions to allow the chemical synthesis of biomacromolecules and to permit the processes required for the emergence of life on our planet. 8) It is unlikely that the emergence of life occurred in any other body of the solar system, although the examination of the Jovian satellite Europa may provide important clues about the constraints of this evolutionary process. Some of the fundamental principles of chemical evolution are briefly discussed.     

Chemical evolution of primitive solar system bodies.

In this paper we summarize some of the most salient observations made recently on the organic molecules and other compounds of the biogenic elements present in the interstellar medium and in the primitive bodies of the solar system. They include the discovery of the first phosphorus molecular species in dense interstellar clouds, the presence of complex organic ions in the dust and gas phase of Halley's coma, the finding of unusual, probably presolar, deuterium-hydrogen ratios in the amino acids of carbonaceous chondrites, and new developments on the chemical evolution of Titan, the primitive Earth, and early Mars. Some of the outstanding problems concerning the synthesis of organic molecules on different cosmic bodies are also discussed from an exobiological perspective.     

Some aspects of the early evolution of photosynthesis.

The early evolution of a photocatalytic system of the porphyrin type, able to efficiently collect and utilize solar energy for primary electron transfer is discussed. Experimental results concerning some spectral and photochemical properties of the porphyrins, biosynthetic precursors of chlorophyll and their complexes with polymeric templates are reviewed. Protoporphyrin IX associated with pigmented proteinoid is demonstrated to be a favourable candidate for a role of a photosensitizer of the first photosynthetic reaction centers. The origin and early evolution of the photosynthetic electron transfer chain and of the phosphorylating mechanism are discussed with emphasis on the energetic mechanisms of archaebacteria.     

Chemical evolution in space--a source of prebiotic molecules.

In Laboratory Astrophysics at Leiden University a laboratory analog for following the chemical evolution of interstellar dust in space shows that the dust contains the bulk of organic material in the universe. We follow the photoprocessing of low temperature (10 K) mixtures of ices subjected to vacuum ultraviolet radiation in simulation of interstellar conditions. The most important, but necessary, difference is in the time scales for photo-processing. One hour in the laboratory is equivalent to one thousand years in low density regions of space and as much as, or greater than, ten thousand to one million years in the depths of dense molecular clouds. The ultimate product of photoprocessing of grain material in the laboratory is a complex nonvolatile residue which is yellow in color and soluble in water and methanol. The molecular weight is greater than the mid-hundreds. The infrared absorption spectra indicate the presence of carboxylic acid and amino groups resembling those of other molecules of presumably prebiological significance produced by more classical methods. One of our residues, when subjected to high resolution mass spectroscopy gave a mass of 82 corresponding to C4H6H2 after release of CO2 and trace ammounts of urea suggesting amino pyroline rings. The deposit of prebiotic dust molecules occurred as many as 5 times in the first 500-700 million years on a primitive Earth by accretion during the passage of the solar system through a dense interstellar cloud. The deposition rate during each passage is estimated to be between 10(9) and 10(10) g per year during the million or so years of each passage; i.e., a total deposition of 1O(9)-10(10) metric tons of complex organic material per passage.     

Heavy-ion induced genetic changes and evolution processes.

On Moon and Mars, there will be more galactic cosmic rays and higher radiation doses than on earth. Our experimental studies showed that heavy ion radiation can effectively cause mutation and chromosome aberrations and that high-LET heavy-ion induced mutants can be irreversible. Chromosome translocations and deletions are common in cells irradiated by heavy particles, and ionizing radiations are effective in causing hyperploidy. The importance of the genetic changes in the evolution of life is an interesting question. Through evolution, there is an increase of DNA content in cells from lower forms of life to higher organisms. The DNA content, however, reached a plateau in vertebrates. By increasing DNA content, there can be an increase of information in the cell. For a given DNA content, the quality of information can be changed by rearranging the DNA. Because radiation can cause hyperploidy, an increase of DNA content in cells, and can induce DNA rearrangement, it is likely that the evolution of life on Mars will be effected by its radiation environment. A simple analysis shows that the radiation level on Mars may cause a mutation frequency comparable to that of the spontaneous mutation rate on Earth. To the extent that mutation plays a role in adaptation, radiation alone on Mars may thus provide sufficient mutation for the evolution of life.     

A laboratory model for interstellar chemical evolution.

The chemistry in a supersonic plasma source flow was studied as a laboratory model for interstellar chemical evolution. It is important to match the similarity parameters for cosmic and laboratory conditions, which connect the temporal and spatial scales of the two cases. The apparatus simulated the conditions in a molecular cloud with respect to molecular-ionic reaction fraction, temperature, and non-equilibrium kinetics. The plasma flow was found to be cold enough, by the radical expansion, to produce polyatomic molecules. From the simple atomic plasma as reactant, cyanopolyyne and unsaturated hydrocarbons were synthesized in the present experiment. These molecules are also inherent in molecular clouds. The reaction mechanism is discussed.     

On the evolution of dust in the solar vicinity.

The analysis of interplanetary dust shows that the majority of particles in out-of-ecliptic regions comes from comets and also that near solar dust, in the ecliptic regions, results most probably largely from comets. The intense radiation flux in the solar vicinity is expected to cause strong modifications in the material composition and surface structure of interplanetary dust particles and hence the analysis of near solar dust provides interesting insights into the evolution of meteoritic, especially cometary materials. Because of the lack of in-situ measurements our present knowledge concerning these processes derives from remote sensing, i.e. observations of the solar F-corona. In particular these are observations of albedo, polarization and colour temperature given in terms of average particle properties. For example the analysis of near infra-red F-corona data points to the existence of a strong component of irregularly structured silicate particles, most probably of cometary origin. The data may indicate a subsequent sublimation of different particles or different constituents of the particles. Here we compare particle properties derived from F-corona observations with model calculations of single particle properties and discuss perspectives of future analysis of cometary dust in the interplanetary cloud.     

Exponential evolution: implications for intelligent extraterrestrial life.

Some measures of biologic complexity, including maximal levels of brain development, are exponential functions of time through intervals of 10(6) to 10(9) yrs. Biological interactions apparently stimulate evolution but physical conditions determine the time required to achieve a given level of complexity. Trends in brain evolution suggest that other organisms could attain human levels within approximately 10(7) yrs. The number (N) and longevity (L) terms in appropriate modifications of the Drake Equation, together with trends in the evolution of biological complexity on Earth, could provide rough estimates of the prevalence of life forms at specified levels of complexity within the Galaxy. If life occurs throughout the cosmos, exponential evolutionary processes imply that higher intelligence will soon (10(9) yrs) become more prevalent than it now is. Changes in the physical universe become less rapid as time increases from the Big Bang. Changes in biological complexity may be most rapid at such later times. This lends a unique and symmetrical importance to early and late universal times.     

The evolution of the central component in SN 1986J

The unusual core-collapse supernova 1986J, in the nearby spiral NGC 891, is the first modern supernova in which evidence of a compact remnant of the supernova has been seen. This evidence comes from recent VLBI images, which show the emergence of a new radio component in the center of the expanding radio shell. The new component shows an inverted radio spectrum contrasting with that of the shell. The new component is likely radio emission associated with the black-hole or neutron star compact remnant of the explosion, which would mark the first direct observational link between a modern supernova and such a compact remnant. We report here on our recent VLBI images at 22 and 5 GHz, as well as on our monitoring of the integrated radio spectrum of SN 1986J. In the 22 GHz image, the central component is marginally resolved.     

The X-ray evolution of galaxies: implications for future X-ray observatories

The X-ray evolution of the luminosity of normal galaxies is primarily driven by the evolution of their X-ray binary populations. The imprints left by a cosmological evolution of the star formation rate (SFR) will cause the average X-ray luminosity of galaxies to appear higher in the redshift range 1–3. As reported by White and Ghosh [ApJ, 504 (1998) L31] the profile of X-ray luminosity with redshift can both serve as a diagnostic probe of the SFR profile and constrain evolutionary models for X-ray binaries. In order to observe the high redshift (z>3) universe in the X-ray band, it is necessary to avoid confusion from foreground field galaxies. We report on the predictions of these models of the X-ray flux expected from galaxies and the implications for the telescope parameters of future deep universe X-ray observatories.