A critical look at space technology and the developing world

Technology is neutral, its use is not. Its introduction and use take place in social, cultural, political and economic contexts which can be at considerable variance with those of the introducing countries, and which are not homogeneous within countries having wide variations in knowldege, background skills, and interpretations of meaning and opportunity.This paper tries to take a dispassionate look at the social and cultural factors that are involved in the introduction, use, and maintenance of space technology in the developing world.     

Status of space science and technology — An Australian perspective

The “Tyranny of Distance” has had a profound influence on Australian history and reaction to it has been an important factor in determining national scientific and technological goals. Because of its size and geographical remoteness, Australia is one of the countries to have gained substantially from the applications of space technology particularly in the fields of communications, meteorology and remote sensing. Australia is the fifth largest investor in INTELSAT which carries a major fraction of the nation's overseas telecommunications. A domestic satellite system, AUSSAT, is being acquired to improve telecommunications within the country. Australia is heavily dependent on satellite data for routine meteorological forecasting. Data from the Australian Landsat Station are in strong demand, particularly for mineral exploration. In the field of space science, Australia is collaborating with Canada and the United States in feasibility studies for STARLAB, a free-flying UV-optical one metre telescope proposed for launch by the US Space Shuttle beginning in 1989. These scientific and technological programs in which Australia is participating are all dependent upon the space programs of other nations and in describing the status of space science and technology from an Australian perspective some comments will be made on particular aspects of the space programs of the United States and Japan.     

Comet-solar wind interactions: A dusty point of view

Anticipating the new results from the space missions to Comet Halley and Comet Giacobini-Zinner, we make a brief review of recent theoretical and observational studies of dust-plasma environment. In order to relate different disciplines in cometary research in the context of comet-solar wind interaction, two separate issues: (a) surface processes and (b) plasma processes are considered to indicate how various kinds of observations of cometary dust comas and tails may be used to infer the conditions of solar wind - comet interaction and the corresponding plasma processes in the cometary ionospheres and ion tails (and vice-versa). In particular, it is suggested that the narrow sunward-pointing dust streamers emitted from the cometary nuclei could be related to the electrostatic transport of sub-micron dust over the nuclear surfaces at large heliocentric distances; and the striae sometimes observed in cometary dust tails at smaller heliocentric distances could be the consequence of electrostatic fragmentation of fluffy dust particles in the ion tails.     

The status of space science and technology in developed countries — The european experience

Space research in Western Europe began in the form of independent national space programmes confined in the first instance to the use of sounding rockets. These early steps were soon supplemented by bilateral collaborative projects with the USA and USSR whose agencies provided the satellite launch vehicles that Europe lacked at that time.In 1962 as a result of an agreement between ten member states the European Space Research Organisation (ESRO) was established for the purpose of carrying out a programme of space science. ESRO was succeeded in 1974 by the European Space Agency (ESA) with a much broader range of activities covering both scientific research and the application of space technology together with the development of launch vehicles.At the present time the totality of space activities of the ESA member states is made up of national programmes and collaborative projects with other nations and agencies together with participation in the agreed ESA programme. Because of its essentially non-military character, its relatively modest level of funding and its multinational nature the European experience with ESA may provide some useful guidance in the development of space science and technology elsewhere in the world.     

Metropolitan expansion and population density patterns in third world supercities as indicated by integration of space and ground data

Monitoring of the urbanization process in the less developed countries of the world is limited by the inadequacy of ground data such as censuses and by their explosive rates of population growth and spatial expansion. By integrating Landsat satellite imagery and available population data, more accurate analyses are possible than by using either medium alone. Using this technique, built-up area, population and patterns of population density for the year 1978 are quantified for six Third World supercities with population in excess of six million: Calcutta, Shanghai, Cairo, Mexico City, Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. Significant differences in density patterns between these cities appear to be related to economic level and culture.     

Synergies of Earth science and space exploration

A more flexible policy basis from which to manage our planet in the 21st century is desirable. As one contribution, we note that synergies between space exploration and the preservation of our habitat exist, and that protecting life on Earth requires similar concepts and information as investigations of life beyond the Earth, including the expansion of human presence in space. Instrumentation and data handling to observe both planetary objects and planet Earth are based on similar techniques. Moreover, while planetary surface operations are conducted under different conditions, the technology to probe the surface and subsurface of both the Earth and other planets requires similar tools, such as radar, seismometers, and drilling devices. The Earth observation community has developed some exemplary tools and has featured successful international cooperation in data handling and sharing that could be equally well applied to robotic planetary exploration. Here we propose a network involving both communities that will enable the interchange of scientific insights and the development of new policies and management strategies. Those tools can provide a vital forum through which the management of this planet can be assisted, and in which a new bridge between the Earth-centric and space-centric communities can be built.     

计量测试与航天科技

随着科学技术的发展,计量测试技术已渗透到国民经济的各个领域,从科研生产到贸易结算、从医疗卫生到人身安全、从环境保护到衣食住行.可以形象地说没有计量,人们就如同"盲人"一样生活在一片漆黑世界里.航天作为高科技产业,对计量更有着很强的依赖性.无论是火箭还是导弹,无论是卫星还是飞船,计量工作作为研制生产不可分割的一部分,贯穿于设计、加工、总装、测试和发射的全过程,并为评定航天产品的综合水平提供权威的依据.未来航天领域新工艺、新材料、新器件的应用,载人飞行技术的发展,航天测控、发射技术的提高,都对计量测试技术提出更高的要求.回顾国外航天大国航天事业的发展,计量在保证产品质量方面发挥了不可低估的作用.我国的航天事业正处在一个新的发展阶段."科技要发展,计量须先行".计量工作应抓住机遇,以型号需求为牵引,扎扎实实地为型号服务,为我国航天事业的发展贡献更大力量.     

Cubesats: Cost-effective science and technology platforms for emerging and developing nations

The development, operation, and analysis of data from cubesats can promote science education and spur technology utilization in emerging and developing nations. This platform offers uniquely low construction and launch costs together with a comparative ubiquity of launch providers; factors that have led more than 80 universities and several emerging nations to develop programs in this field. Their small size and weight enables cubesats to “piggyback” on rocket launches and accompany orbiters travelling to Moon and Mars. It is envisaged that constellations of cubesats will be used for larger science missions. We present a brief history, technology overview, and summary of applications in science and industry for these small satellites. Cubesat technical success stories are offered along with a summary of pitfalls and challenges encountered in both developed and emerging nations. A discussion of economic and public policy issues aims to facilitate the decision-making process for those considering utilization of this unique technology.     

Impact of space research and technology on small countries

Results of an analysis on impact of space research and technology on developing countries undertaken by the UNISPACE 82 Secretariat on base on national papers submitted by UN member countries to the Conference are reviewed.Experience concerning the implications of a co-operative program on satellite geodesy between the Astronomical Council of the USSR Academy of Sciences and several small countries of Africa, Asia and South America is discussed.     

Experiences of the GDR in space sciences and technology

Following a historical review of the first activities of GDR scientists in the fields of space research, especially on astronomical and geodetical satellite-observations and in atmospheric and magnetospheric research, the growing scientific and increasingly efficient technological and economic benefits of the cooperation of the Academy of sciences and other scientific and technological institutions of the GDR within the Intercosmos-programme are described. Especially, the experiences in connection with remote sensing, of the cooperation with countries as Cuba and the Peoples Republic of Vietnam and of the common USSR - GDR manned spaceflight are discussed under the viewpoint of the mutual interests of developing and developed countries in the fields of space science and technology.     

Encounter trajectories for deep space mission ASTER to the triple near Earth asteroid 2001-SN263. The laser altimeter (ALR) point of view

In cooperation with Russia, the Brazilian deep space mission ASTER plans to send a small spacecraft to investigate the triple asteroid 2001-SN263. The nearest launch opportunities for this project include June 2022 and June 2025. One main exploration campaign is being planned with focus on the largest asteroid (Alpha). Among the instruments under development, a laser altimeter (named ALR) was preliminarily designed and presented in 2010–2011. Many studies to define mission and instruments requirements were performed aiming at the characterization of important issues for the successful realization of the mission. Among them, the identification of a suitable trajectory that could be followed by the ASTER spacecraft in the encounter phase, when the main campaign will take place. This paper describes the effort undertaken with focus on the laser altimeter operation. Possible encounter trajectories were modelled and simulated to identify suitable approach parameters and conditions allowing the accomplishment of the intended investigation. The simulation also involves the instrument operation, considering approach geometry, attitude, relative motion, time/date, and the dynamics of the main asteroid. From the laser altimeter point of view, keeping in mind the desired coverage results (50% minimum surface coverage of asteroid Alpha, complying with horizontal and vertical resolution requirements), results point out crucial features for the encounter trajectory, like the need for a small inclination (10^-6 degrees; with respect to the asteroid's orbit), the most favourable spacecraft positioning (between the Sun and the asteroid) and pointing condition (back to the Sun), the minimum amount of achievable surface coverage (58%, focused on central areas), and the most proper time to conduct the main campaign (January 2025). Concerning the instrument, results offer refined values for divergence angle (500 to 650 μrad, half-cone), pulse repetition frequencies (from 1/20 to 1 Hz), and consequent data generation rates. A simulation tool that can use any 3D generated trajectories as input data was created for the analyses presented here. Although created for the ALR in this mission, this simple analysis tool can be adapted to other instruments in this or other missions.     

Redefinition of the meteor storm from the point of view of spaceflight security

ZHR¹ is defined as number of meteoroids passing 1000 km² zenith area per hour which can produce craters no less than 1 cm in diameter on an aluminum material. The relationship between ZHR and ZHR¹ is deduced. We evaluate the strong meteor showers since 1990s by ZHR¹ instead of ZHR and find the Giacobinid (Draconid) shower in 1998 is much stronger than the Leonid shower in 1999, 2001 and 2002.     

Impact of space research and technology on small countries (A case study for Austria)

Austria, being a small country, has no possibilities to carry out space research on a mere national basis. Bilateral and multilateral cooperation is essential.     

Survival of microorganisms in space: A review

Spores of $\text{Bacillus subtilis}$ were exposed to selected factors of space (vacuum, solar UV radiation, heavy ions of cosmic radiation), and their response was studied after recovery. These investigations were supplemented by ground-based studies under simulated space conditions. The vacuum of space did not inactivate the spores. However, vacuum-induced structural changes in the DNA, and probably in the proteins, caused a supersensitivity to solar UV radiation. This phenomenon is caused by the production of specific photoproducts in DNA and protein, which cannot be removed by normal cellular repair processes. In vegetative bacterial cells, exposed to vacuum, cell dehydration led to damage of the cell membrane, which could be partly repaired during subsequent incubation. The high local effectiveness of the cosmic heavy ions further decreases the chance that spores can survive for any length of time in space. Nonetheless, a spore travelling through space and protected from ultraviolet radiation could possibly survive an interplanetary journey. Such a situation favors panspermia as a possible explanation for the origin of life.     

Coordinated control of tethered space robot using mobile tether attachment point in approaching phase

Tethered space robots (TSRs) have wide applications in future on-orbit service owing to its flexibility and great workspace. However, the control problem is quite complex and difficult in the phase of approaching target, and the fuel consumption must also be taken into account. Hence, we present a novel scheme of achieving coordinated orbit and attitude control simultaneously for the TSR. Space tether, which can provide greater force compared with the thruster force, is used in the design of the orbit and attitude coordinated controller. A coordinated control mechanism is designed to provide attitude control torques of the pitch and yaw motions by adjusting the position of the mobile tether attachment point, while the roll motion is stabilized by the thruster. In order to guarantee this mechanism to work properly, constant tether tension strategies are utilized to plan an optimal approaching trajectory which is tracked by the coordinated controller of tether force and thruster force. Numerical simulation validates the feasibility of our proposed coordinated control scheme for TSR in the approaching phase. Furthermore, fuel consumption of the orbit and attitude control are both significantly reduced compared with traditional thruster control.