Remote-sensing technology applied to forest assessment in California

Remote-sensing technology has been thoroughly evaluated for the analysis of California forest policy. A statewide, 1.6-acre-resolution, digital land-cover data base of Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS) classification has been produced. Three major resource regions have been analyzed in detail and one of them geographically integrated with 12 other physical and socioeconomic data layers to model fire and reforestation problems, using a geographic information system (GIS). A study of GIS design criteria has been conducted and the California Department of Forestry, the cooperator in all of these studies, is presently evaluating the alternatives and implementing certain aspects of them.     

Applicationof remote sensing techniques in geological studies of various mineralized belts in India. (National paper on IGCP — 143)

Geological interpretation, analysis and evaluation of LANDSAT and airborne MSS data, panchromatic and colour infrred photographs and spectral reflectance data for a number of test sites in different mineralized belts in India have led to certain significant results. Lithological discrimination on digitally processed enhanced MSS data products has helped in further subdivisions of major rock groups. Lineament pattern analyses reveals three prominent sets of fractures in Indian Precambrian Shield with predominant ENE-WSW megalineament probably representing earliest deep crustal fractures and subsequent NNW-SSE and NE-SW fractures, associated with polyphase tectonic movements. Correlation of structures and mineralization indicate structural control for most of the mineralized belts with intersecting locii type concentration of ore deposits in some cases. In a few cases control of mineralization is lithology and stratigraphy. Spectral groundtruth and laboratory studies indicate that major rock types have characteristic spectral patterns (signatures) which would be useful for lithological mapping by automatic classification techniques. The work also has led to the improvement of enhanced MSS data products for geological studies.     

Landsat thematic mapper studies of land cover spatial variability related to hydrology

The Landsat 4 and 5 Thematic Mapper (TM) provides increased spatial, spectral, and radiometric capability relative to the Multispectral Scanner (MSS). Visual inspection of TM imagery confirms this. Land cover detail is evident that would be of use in watershed management and planning activities. Specific studies have been conducted in Georgia, West Virginia, Michigan and Maryland to compare MSS and TM for urbanizing watersheds, wetlands, and floodplain mapping situations. These studies show that only modest improvements in classification accuracy (Anderson Level I/II) have been achieved using existing classification approaches. An attempt to identify the visibly apparent interstate highways and secondary and residential streets in TM data via conventional approaches failed due to an inability to derive separable spectral signatures. The basis for a non-parametric approach to classification is presented in which roads are identified by locating linear local minima in the greenness transformed dimension. Preliminary results indicate that such a method provides more reliable road locations than MSS or TM used singly.     

Estimating canopy cover in drylands with Landsat MSS data

The relationship between canopy cover and spectral characteristics of the corresponding areas was studied in a semi-arid savannah environment in Kordofan, The Sudan.The canopy cover was measured in 32 test plots through air photo interpretation. Achieved values were correlated with multitemporal Landsat MSS raw data and manipulated data.The highest correlation coefficients in general were obtained between crown cover and spectral data recorded during the dry season.The inverse relationship between amount of woody vegetation and nIR reflectance (MSS 6, MSS 7) was striking. This implied that other factors than a healthy foliage characterized the spectral responses.Destructive measurements of woody biomass were carried out to establish a relationship between woody wet weight and crown diameter for future biomass studies.     

Experiment for mapping land cover and it’s change in southeastern Sri Lanka utilizing 250 m resolution MODIS imageries

Utilizing freely available MODIS NDVI and Natural color imageries of 250 m spatial resolution produced by NASA, an experiment was made to map land-cover and its change with an emphasis on vegetation cover in southeastern Sri Lanka, which plays a vital role for control of green house gas. For the change detection purpose, 1987 land cover map made by present authors from Landsat MSS image and extensive ground truth survey data was used as the base map. The result of the experiment shows that MODIS data are useful to make a land cover map of 250 m spatial resolution for tropical areas with high cloud coverage like Sri Lanka. It was found that the forest cover decrease amounted as large as 21% in 19 years time span in southeastern Sri Lanka, the prominent forest region of the country. On the other hand homestead/vegetation and mixed vegetation/scrub dominant categories increased by 13.7% and 7.1%, respectively. These changes are considered due to a large clearance of forest areas for agriculture and building houses to accommodate increasing inhabitants.     

Enhanced Landsat and HCMM imagery for mineral exploration in contrasting areas of subtropical humid and semi-arid terrain

The role of multispectral and thermal imagery in mineral exploration is evaluated for two areas with favourable geological conditions within contrasting physical environments — one in the semi-arid low tree and shrub savannas of western Queensland and northern South Australia, the other in the humid subtropical forest zone of western Yunnan, China.For both areas Landsat imagery was used to identify structures and lithologies favourable for mineralization and locate ironstones/gossans indicative of mineralized bedrock. HCMM imagery was used alongside Landsat imagery to identify former and ephemeral drainage patterns important for the interpretation of geochemical data over covered ground in Australia. Interpretations were made of enhanced colour composites, outputs of MSS band ratios and colour rotated images generated from both NASA film products and CCTs. These were checked by field studies during which plant, soil and rock chip samples for subsequent metals analyses were collected from areas of anomalous vegetation and from barren ironstones. Some rock chip samples from Australia contained concentrations of copper or lead or small amounts of other metals. In China geobotanical anomalies over ironstones from which soil and rock samples yielded copper, lead, zinc, tin and silver suggest the presence of a major belt of potential multi-metal mineralization.     

Development of digital interactive processing system for NOAA satellites AVHRR data

The paper discusses the digital image processing system for NOAA/AVHRR data including Land applications — configured around VAX 11/750 host computer supported with FPS 100 Array Processor, Comtal graphic display and HP Plotting devices; wherein the system software for relational Data Base together with query and editing facilities, Man-Machine Interface using form, menu and prompt inputs including validation of user entries for data type and range; preprocessing software for data calibration, Sun-angle correction, Geometric Corrections for Earth curvature effect and Earth rotation offsets and Earth location of AVHRR image have been accomplished. The implemented image enhancement techniques such as grey level stretching, histogram equalization and convolution are discussed. The software implementation details for the computation of vegetative index and normalized vegetative index using NOAA/AVHRR channels 1 and 2 data together with output are presented; scientific background for such computations and obtainability of similar indices from Landsat/MSS data are also included. The paper concludes by specifying the further software developments planned and the progress envisaged in the field of vegetation index studies.     

Landsat image data quality studies

The July 1982 launch of Landsat-4 was immediately followed by a two-year comprehensive set of detailed investigations sponsored by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC). The Landsat Image Data Quality Analysis (LIDQA) research plans for these investigations were specified prior to launch, so that minimum time would be lost in assessing the performance of the long-awaited Thematic Mapper (TM) sensor that Landsat-4 carried in addition to a fourth Multispectral Scanner (MSS). The LIDQA investigations have been substantially completed, and have shown that the TM is a very good spaceborne multispectral radiometer, and has met or exceeded most of its design goals. TM's new short-wave infrared (SWIR) spectral capability yielded improved mineral and plant discrimination compared to the MSS, as anticipated by ground-based and airborne TM simulations. Moreover, the improved spatial resolution and geometric accuracy of Landsat-4 and the TM have resulted in satellite image maps exceeding 1:100,000 U.S. map accuracy standards. Finally, based on an information entropy measure, principal component analysis, and classification results, TM data has been shown to approach its theoretical limit in information content per pixel, exceeding the MSS by at least a factor of two.     

Merging Landsat and spaceborne radar data over Tunisia

Synthetic Aperture Radar data were acquired over Tunisia by Seasat in Aug. 1978 and by SIR-A in Nov. 1981. The radar images are contrasted to the Landsat scenes overlapping the same area. The Landsat images were taken in Aug. 1978 and in Sept. 1981. In this study, subareas of the SIR-A and MSS images are registered to the corresponding Seasat data (1313 lines by 1970 samples). The test site is located East of Kairouan, Tunisia. It is a low relief area with subdesertic climatic conditions. This region was selected for it has been surveyed by both Seasat and SIR-A providing perpendicular radar illumination directions. The multispectral and multitemporal coregistered data set enables comparisons between the systems (radar versus MSS, and Seasat versus SIR-A), and change detection in the desertification processes and on the surface of the playas.     

Utility of proposed sensors for coastal engineering studies

The needs of coastal engineering are different from open ocean monitoring or fisheries potential monitoring. A high resolution of 20 meters is essential for identifying several processes that are taking place and influences the coast. A case of application of Landsat MSS to evaluate littoral process highlights the needs for improved spatial resolution. Nevertheless Landsat MSS data for 1981 and 1982 showed that the extent of accretion and erosion that has taken place during this period. Some problems to be addressed for marine remote sensing are mainly regarding the need for insitu data. These aspects are mentioned.     

加拿大移动服务系统地面遥操作模式综述

针对未来我国空间站机械臂地面遥操作任务需求,分析目前国际空间站上加拿大移动服务系统（Mobile Satellite Services,MSS）地面遥操作的系统设计和安全性问题。介绍了MSS的系统构成,分析了MSS地面遥操作需求,对比分析了在轨操作和地面遥操作模式的不同,以及地面遥操作的约束条件;介绍了MSS地面遥操作过程中的任务规划、任务执行和在轨调试;总结了对我国空间站机械臂遥操作的启示,为从事空间站机械臂地面遥操作的科研人员提供一定的借鉴和参考。     

Examining LiDAR – WorldView-3 data synergy to generate a detailed stand map in a mixed forest in the north-west of Turkey

Although stand delineation approach based on aerial photographs and field survey produces high accuracy maps, it is labour-intensive and time consuming. Furthermore, conventional forest stand maps may have some uncertainties that can hardly be verified due to the experiments and skills of photo-interpreters. Therefore, researchers have been seeking more objective and cost-effective methods for forest mapping. LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) data have a high potential to automatically delineate forest stands. Unlike optical sensors, LiDAR height data provides information about both the horizontal and vertical structural characteristics of forest stands. However, it deprives of spectral data that may be successfully used in separating tree species. In this study, we investigate the potential of LiDAR – WorldView-3 data synergy for the automatic generation of a detailed forest stand map which can be used for a tactical forest management plan. Firstly, image segmentation was applied to LiDAR data alone and LiDAR/WorldView-3 data set in order to obtain the most suitable image objects representing forest stands. Visual inspection of the segmentation results showed that image objects based on the LiDAR/WorldView-3 data set were more compatible with the reference forest stand boundaries. After the segmentation process, the LiDAR and LiDAR/WorldView-3 data sets were independently classified using object-based classification method. We tested two levels of classification. The first was a detailed classification with 14 classes considering reference stand types. The second was the rough classification with 9 classes where some stand types were combined. The mean, standard deviation and texture features of LiDAR metrics and spectral information were used in the classification. The accuracy assessment results of LiDAR data showed that the Overall Accuracy (OA) was calculated as 0.31 and 0.43, and the Kappa Index (KIA) was calculated as 0.26 and 0.32 for the detailed and rough classifications, respectively. For the LiDAR/WorldView-3 data set, the OA values were calculated as 0.50 and 0.61, and the KIA were calculated as 0.46 and 0.55 for the detailed and rough classifications, respectively. These results showed that the forest stand map derived from the LiDAR/WorldView-3 data synergy is more compatible with the reference forest stand map. In conclusion, it can be said that the forest stand maps produced in this study may provide strategic forest planning needs, but it is not sufficient for tactical forest management plans.     

Application of remote sensing techniques in mineral resources survey — a case study pertaining to Singhbhum Shear Zone,Bihar, India

Geological analysis and evaluation of digitally processed and enhanced LANDSAT MSS data products for three test areas of Singhbhum Shear Zone, India has led to certain significant results regarding optimisation and utility of such techniques for geological studies and obtaining additional/new information regarding lithology and structure. Three band-to-band ratio images are found to give best results. Lithologic formations could be subdivided into a number of units. The Westward and southeastward extension of the shear zone could be delineated thereby indicating scope of mineralisation in these parts.     

Hydrologic appraisal of rivers plan-form at confluence zone — A case study using Landsat MSS data

In river systems confluences and bifurcations are typical features whose effects are largely dependent on the specific characteristics of the rivers involved. The study makes an attempt to analyse the planform configuration at the confluence zone of the Wainganga and Khobragadi rivers in the central part of India. The data used are the Landsat MSS CCT data of date 17.12.1972 for scene 154-046 and black and white aerial photographs of November, 1969. Supervised method of classification using maximum likelihood classification method is employed. The study confirms that the discharge and sediment transport in the individual rivers constitute the dominating factors in the changes of planform geometry at a confluence. The usefulness of the Landsat MSS data and digital analysis techniques. for generating the necessary data inputs for the study is also validated.     

Prospecting in glaciated terrain-integrating airborne and Landsat MSS

The effects of a glacially enriched zone of trace elements on soils and vegetation in the Thetford Mines area of Quebec were investigated using ground information plus digital Multispectral Scanner (MSS) data from airborne and Landsat sensors. The enriched zone was developed during the last glaciation when a southeastward flowing glacier eroded and dispersed an ultrabasic outcrop that had anomalous levels of Ni, Cu, Co, Cr, Mg and Fe.The dispersal train of enriched trace elements was detectable over an area at least 70 × 15 km ‘down-ice’ from the outcrop. In this zone total Ni concentrations in the soil ranged from background levels of 10 ppm to levels in excess of 1800 ppm. The dominant tree species, $\text{Abies}$$\text{balsamea}$ (balsam fir) and $\text{Picea glauca}$ (white spruce) reflect the soil anomaly with higher concentrations of trace elements in their tissue and lower concentrations of chlorophyll.An unsupervised enhancement of Landsat imagery showed that a tonal discontinuity was caused by a vegetation segregation related to the heavy metal enrichment soils. A detailed study based on Landsat MSS data was able to establish regional patterns of chlorophyll production by certain plant species closely related to the ultrabasic dispersal train. Multi-channel airborne MSS data confirmed the Landsat soil-plant patterns.     

Preliminary evaluation of the landsat-4 thematic mapper data for mineral exploration

Landsat-4 Thematic Mapper (TM) data recorded over an arid terrain were analyzed to determine the applicability of using of TM data for identifying and mapping hydrothermally altered, potentially mineralized rocks. Clays, micas, and other minerals bearing the OH anion in specific crystal lattice positions have absorption bands in the 2.2-μm region (TM channel 7, TM7) and commonly lack features in the 1.6-μm region (TM5). Channel ratios TM5/TM7, TM5/TM4, and TM3/TM1 were combined into a color-ratio-composite (CRC) image and used to distinguish hydrothermally altered rocks, unaltered rocks, and vegetation. These distinctions are made possible by using the TM5 and TM7, channels which are not available in the Landsat multispectral scanner (MSS). Digital masking was used to eliminate ambiguities due to water and shadows. However, some ambiguities in identification resulted between altered volcanic rocks and unaltered sedimentary deposits that contained clays, carbonates, and gypsum, and between altered volcanic rocks and volcanic tuffs diagenetically altered to zeolites. However, compared to MSS data, TM data should greatly improve the ability to map hydrothermally altered rocks in arid terrains.     

Temporal analysis of suspended solid in Tokyo Bay by Landsat data

The amount of suspended solid (S.S.) discharged from Tokyo metropolitan area is estimated by use of multi-temporal Landsat data from 1979 to 1980. The method to estimate S.S. was verified with sea truth data which was observed with Landsat passes covering Tokyo Bay. The radiometric information is normalized against seasonal change of sun illuminations and atmospheric conditions. Path radiance estimation methods were discussed, because its effects are very sensitive to the estimation of S.S. concentration by Landsat MSS data. Temporal changes of S.S. distribution was also interpreted.     

改进的GPS掩星滑动频谱方法

在大气多路径和噪声的条件下,高斯白噪声会造成滑动频谱方法获得的弯曲角与真值之间的偏离,无法获得较好的反演结果。为此,文章提出了一种改进的滑动频谱方法,即利用信号的振幅和谱能量信息对滑动频谱方法进行修正,削弱了信号中噪声的影响,与真值较为接近。分别用改进前后两种方法对中华卫星三号计划（Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere and Climate,COSMIC）的掩星进行反演,并将其折射率计算结果和通过全谱反演方法获得的折射率一起,与欧洲中期天气预报中心（European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts,ECMWF）的分析场资料进行了统计比较。结果表明：改进的滑动频谱方法删除了信号中的部分噪声,减少了系统偏差;与全谱反演方法进行比较,发现两者具有相当的反演精度。     

Calculation of flood hydrographs using Landsat-derived land-use information in the Dreisam watershed,South-West Germany

Flood calculations in a watershed in South-West Germany have been carried out using a geographical data base including land-use, soil information and slope with a resolution of 64×104 m. The land-use information is result of a maximum-likelihood classification of MSS-data. As model for the calculation of the flood hydrographs the SCS-TR 20 was used. The single event calculations as well as the calculations using 24h rainfall of different return periods match the measured hydrographs well. The effect of a possible deforestation of the area due to forest damages has been simulated using 5 different scenarios. According to the simulations a total deforestation causes a 100 year peak discharge 5 times as high as with the current forest distribution.