Cloud Formation and the Possible Significance of Charge for Atmospheric Condensation and Ice Nuclei

Cloud formation in the atmosphere is related to the presence of water vapour, cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) and ice nuclei (IN). Ionisation in the atmosphere is caused by a variety of sources, but the contribution from cosmic rays is always present and is modulated by the solar cycle. Methods of investigating the variability in ionisation are described. The mechanisms proposed by which (1) ionisation could influence cloud formation, and (2) by which changes to the CCN and IN could occur are discussed. Direct formation of sulphate CN is conceivable in atmospheric air by radioactivity, and charging of molecular clusters leads to greater collisions rates than for neutral clusters. Modification of the ice nucleation efficiency of aerosol could also have atmospheric effects through latent heat release. However in both cases definitive atmospheric experimental work is lacking and therefore any link between solar variability and clouds remains unproven.     

Cosmic Rays,Clouds, and Climate

A correlation between a global average of low cloud cover and the flux of cosmic rays incident in the atmosphere has been observed during the last solar cycle. The ionising potential of Earth bound cosmic rays are modulated by the state of the heliosphere, while clouds play an important role in the Earth's radiation budget through trapping outgoing radiation and reflecting incoming radiation. If a physical link between these two features can be established, it would provide a mechanism linking solar activity and Earth's climate. Recent satellite observations have further revealed a correlation between cosmic ray flux and low cloud top temperature. The temperature of a cloud depends on the radiation properties determined by its droplet distribution. Low clouds are warm (>273K) and therefore consist of liquid water droplets. At typical atmospheric supersaturations (1%) a liquid cloud drop will only form in the presence of an aerosol, which acts as a condensation site. The droplet distribution of a cloud will then depend on the number of aerosols activated as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) and the level of super saturation. Based on observational evidence it is argued that a mechanism to explain the cosmic ray-cloud link might be found through the role of atmospheric ionisation in aerosol production and/or growth. Observations of local aerosol increases in low cloud due to ship exhaust indicate that a small perturbation in atmospheric aerosol can have a major impact on low cloud radiative properties. Thus, a moderate influence on atmospheric aerosol distributions from cosmic ray ionisation would have a strong influence on the Earth's radiation budget. Historical evidence over the past 1000 years indicates that changes in climate have occurred in accord with variability in cosmic ray intensities. Such changes are in agreement with the sign of cloud radiative forcing associated with cosmic ray variability as estimated from satellite observations.     

Solar Influence on Earth's Climate

An increasing number of studies indicate that variations in solar activity have had a significant influence on Earth's climate. However, the mechanisms responsible for a solar influence are still not known. One possibility is that atmospheric transparency is influenced by changing cloud properties via cosmic ray ionisation (the latter being modulated by solar activity). Support for this idea is found from satellite observations of cloud cover. Such data have revealed a striking correlation between the intensity of galactic cosmic rays (GCR) and low liquid clouds (<3.2 km). GCR are responsible for nearly all ionisation in the atmosphere below 35 km. One mechanism could involve ion-induced formation of aerosol particles (diameter range, 0.001–1.0 μm) that can act as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN). A systematic variation in the properties of CCN will affect the cloud droplet distribution and thereby influence the radiative properties of clouds. If the GCR-Cloud link is confirmed variations in galactic cosmic ray flux, caused by changes in solar activity and the space environment, could influence Earth's radiation budget. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Cosmic-ray acceleration and transport,and diffuse galactic γ-ray emission

Cosmic-ray acceleration and transport is considered from the point of view of application to diffuse galactic -ray sources. As an introduction we review several source models, in particular supernovae exploding inside or near large interstellar clouds. The complex problem of cosmic ray transport in random electromagnetic fields is reduced to three cases which should be sufficient for practical purposes. As far as diffusive acceleration is concerned, apart from reviewing the basic physical principles, we point out the relation between shock acceleration and 2nd order Fermi acceleration, and the relative importance of the two processes around interstellar shock waves. For -ray source models the interaction of cosmic rays with dense clouds assumes great importance. Past discussions had been confined to static interactions of clouds with the ambient medium in the sense that no large scale mass motions in the ambient interstellar medium were considered. The well-known result then is that down to some tens of MeV or less, cosmic-ray nucleons should freely penetrate molecular clouds of typical masses and sizes. The self-exclusion of very low energy nucleons however may affect electron transport with consequences for the Bremsstrahlung -luminosity of such clouds.In this paper we consider also the dynamical interaction of dense clouds with a surrounding hot interstellar medium. Through cloud evaporation and accretion there exist mass flows in the cloud surroundings. We argue that in the case of (small) cloud evaporation the galactic cosmic rays will be essentially excluded from the clouds. The dynamic effects of cosmic rays on the flow should be minor in this case. For the opposite case of gas accretion onto (large) clouds, cosmic-ray effects on the flow will in general be large, limiting the cosmic-ray compression inside the cloud to dynamic pressure equilibrium. This should have a number of interesting and new consequences for -ray astronomy. A first, qualitative discussion is given in the last section.Proceedings of the XVIII General Assembly of the IAU: Galactic Astrophysics and Gamma-Ray Astronomy, held at Patras, Greece, 19 August 1982.     

挂滴燃烧中的微汽泡行为和液滴跳动

利用高速显微摄像技术,观察研究了RP-3微尺度挂滴燃烧过程中,微汽泡的核化、生长、聚并和溢出的行为过程及液滴跳动现象.结果得出:①液滴中微汽泡产生的位置;②在蒸发初期时由微汽泡引起液滴体积的膨胀;③在燃烧中由汽泡行为导致液滴的跳动;④液滴燃烧的稳定(不爆裂)现象.分析了表面张力在挂滴燃烧过程中的作用,确定了挂滴稳定燃烧的临界条件下的临界特征体积在2.5~5.0μL.      

Aerosol Effects on Clouds and Climate

Aerosols affect the climate system by changing cloud characteristics in many ways. They act as cloud condensation and ice nuclei, they may inhibit freezing and they could have an influence on the hydrological cycle. While the cloud albedo enhancement (Twomey effect) of warm clouds received most attention so far and traditionally is the only indirect aerosol forcing considered in transient climate simulations, here I discuss the multitude of effects.     

Formation and Composition of Planetesimals

The composition of planetesimals depends upon the epoch and the location of their formation in the solar nebula. Meteorites produced in the hot inner nebula contain refractory compounds. Volatiles were present in icy planetesimals and cometesimals produced in the cold outer nebula. However, the mechanism responsible for their trapping is still controversial. We argue for a general scenario valid in all regions of the turbulent nebula where water condensed as a crystalline ice (Hersant et al., 2004). Volatiles were trapped in the form of clathrate hydrates in the continuously cooling nebula. The epoch of clathration of a given species depends upon the temperature and the pressure required for the stability of the clathrate hydrate. The efficiency of the mechanism depends upon the local amount of ice available. This scenario is the only one so far which proposes a quantitative interpretation of the non detection of N₂ in several comets of the Oort cloud (Iro et al., 2003). It may explain the large variation of the CO abundance observed in comets and predicts an Ar/O ratio much less than the upper limit of 0.1 times the solar ratio estimated on C/2001 A2 (Weaver et al., 2002). Under the assumption that the amount of water ice present at 5 AU was higher than the value corresponding to the solar O/H ratio by a factor 2.2 at least, the clathration scenario reproduces the quasi uniform enrichment with respect to solar of the Ar, Kr, Xe, C, N and S elements measured in Jupiter by the Galileo probe. The interpretation of the non-uniform enrichment in C, N and S in Saturn requires that ice was less abundant at 10 AU than at 5 AU so that CO and N₂ were not clathrated in the feeding zone of the planet while CH₄, NH₃ and H₂S were. As a result, the 14N/15N ratio in Saturn should be intermediate between that in Jupiter and the terrestrial ratio. Ar and Kr should be solar while Xe should be enriched by a factor 17. The enrichments in C, N and S in Uranus and Neptune suggest that available ice was able to form clathrates of CH₄, CO and the NH₃ hydrate, but not the clathrate of N₂. The enrichment of oxygen by a factor 440 in Neptune inferred by Lodders and Fegley (1994) from the detection of CO in the troposphere of the planet is higher by at least a factor 2.5 than the lower limit of O/H required for the clathration of CO and CH4 and for the hydration of NH₃. If CO detected by Encrenaz et al. (2004) in Uranus originates from the interior of the planet, the O/H ratio in the envelope must be around of order of 260 times the solar ratio, then also consistent with the trapping of detected volatiles by clathration. It is predicted that Ar and Kr are solar in the two planets while Xe would be enriched by a factor 30 to 70. Observational tests of the validity of the clathration scenario are proposed.     

Cometary dynamics

The modern theory of cometary dynamics is based on Oort's hypothesis that the solar system is surrounded by a spherically symmetric cloud of 10¹¹ to 10¹² comets extending out to interstellar distances. Dynamical modeling and analysis of cometary motion have confirmed the ability of the Oort hypothesis to explain the observed distribution of energies for the long-period comet orbits. The motion of comets in the Oort cloud is controlled by perturbations from random passing stars, interstellar clouds, and the galactic gravitational field. Additionally, comets which enter the planetary region are perturbed by the major planets and by nongravitational forces resulting from jetting of volatiles on the surfaces of the cometary nuclei. The current Oort cloud is estimated to have a radius of 6 to 8 × 10⁴ AU, and to contain some 2 × 10¹² comets with a total mass of 7 to 8 Earth masses. Evidence has begun to accumulate for the existence of a massive inner Oort cloud extending from just beyond the orbit of Neptune to 10⁴ AU or more, with a population up to 100 times that of the outer Oort cloud. This inner cloud may serve as a reservoir to replenish the outer cloud as comets are stripped away by the various perturbers, and may also provide a more efficient source for the short-period comets. Recent suggestions of an unseen solar companion star or a tenth planet orbiting in the inner cloud and causing periodic comet showers on the Earth are likely unfounded. The formation site of the comets in the Oort cloud was likely the extended nebula accretion disc reaching from about 15 to 500 AU from the forming protosun. Comets which escape from the Oort cloud contribute to the flux of interstellar comets, though capture of interstellar comets by the solar system is extremely unlikely. The existence of Oort clouds around other main sequence stars has been suggested by the detection by the IRAS spacecraft of cool dust shells around about 10% of nearby stars.     

A spongy icing model for aircraft icing

Researches have indicated that impinging droplets can be entrapped as liquid in the ice matrix and the temperature of accreting ice surface is below the freezing point. When liquid entrapment by ice matrix happens, this kind of ice is called spongy ice. A new spongy icing model for the ice accretion problem on airfoil or aircraft has been developed to account for entrapped liquid within accreted ice and to improve the determination of the surface temperature when enter- ing clouds with supercooled droplets. Different with conventional icing model, this model identifies icing conditions in four regimes： rime, spongy without water film, spongy with water film and glaze. By using the Eulerian method based on two-phase flow theory, the impinging droplet flow was investigated numerically. The accuracy of the Eulerian method for computing the water collection efficiency was assessed, and icing shapes and surface temperature distributions predicted with this spongy icing model agree with experimental results well.     

Interplanetary Origin of Intense,Superintense and Extreme Geomagnetic Storms

We present a review on the interplanetary causes of intense geomagnetic storms (Dst≤−100 nT), that occurred during solar cycle 23 (1997–2005). It was reported that the most common interplanetary structures leading to the development of intense storms were: magnetic clouds, sheath fields, sheath fields followed by a magnetic cloud and corotating interaction regions at the leading fronts of high speed streams. However, the relative importance of each of those driving structures has been shown to vary with the solar cycle phase. Superintense storms (Dst≤−250 nT) have been also studied in more detail for solar cycle 23, confirming initial studies done about their main interplanetary causes. The storms are associated with magnetic clouds and sheath fields following interplanetary shocks, although they frequently involve consecutive and complex ICME structures. Concerning extreme storms (Dst≤−400 nT), due to the poor statistics of their occurrence during the space era, only some indications about their main interplanetary causes are known. For the most extreme events, we review the Carrington event and also discuss the distribution of historical and space era extreme events in the context of the sunspot and Gleissberg solar activity cycles, highlighting a discussion about the eventual occurrence of more Carrington-type storms.     

结冰风洞中过冷大水滴云雾演化特性数值研究

为明晰结冰风洞中过冷大水滴（SLD）云雾演化特性,发展了基于欧拉法的SLD液滴运动、传热和传质耦合计算方法,针对3 m×2 m结冰风洞主试验段水平收缩构型,分析了SLD云雾沉降收缩特性、动量平衡特性和热平衡特性,探索了液滴变形破碎的影响,评估了构型出口处SLD液滴动量平衡和热平衡状态。研究结果表明：直径超过250 μm的SLD液滴在构型内会发生显著形变,液滴尺寸越大则变形程度越强,尤其在160 m/s工况下,当液滴直径超过750 μm后,SLD液滴甚至会发生破碎;液滴变形破碎效应会增大液滴加速度和液滴温度下降率,促使SLD液滴趋近动量平衡和热平衡状态;SLD云雾（最大液滴直径小于1 000 μm）在构型出口处会出现显著的粒径浓度分层、动量分层和热分层现象,其中直径小于100 μm的小尺寸液滴速度快、温度低且不断凝结,趋于平衡态,但直径超过500 μm的大尺寸SLD液滴速度慢、温度高且不断蒸发,则显著偏离平衡态;增大试验段气流速度尽管会减弱SLD云雾粒径浓度分层程度,但会增强动量分层和热分层程度,尤其在160 m/s工况下,SLD云雾会均匀分布在构型出口中心区域内（-0.75 m < Y < 0.75 m且-0.5 m < Z < 0.5 m）,与其平衡态间的最大速度差和温度差将分别超过18 m/s和20℃。     

The Solar System d/h Ratio: Observations and Theories

The measured D/H ratios in interstellar environments and in the solar system are reviewed. The two extreme D/H ratios in solar system water - (720±120)×10⁻⁶ in clay minerals and (88±11)×10⁻⁶ in chondrules, both from LL3 chondritic meteorites - are interpreted as the result of a progressive isotopic exchange in the solar nebula between deuterium-rich interstellar water and protosolar H₂. According to a turbulent model describing the evolution of the nebula (Drouart et al., 1999), water in the solar system cannot be a product of thermal (neutral) reactions occurring in the solar nebula. Taking 720×10⁻⁶ as a face value for the isotopic composition of the interstellar water that predates the formation of the solar nebula, numerical simulations show that the water D/H ratio decreases via an isotopic exchange with H₂. During the course of this process, a D/H gradient was established in the nebula. This gradient was smoothed with time and the isotopic homogenization of the solar nebula was completed in 10⁶ years, reaching a D/H ratio of 88×10⁻⁶. In this model, cometary water should have also suffered a partial isotopic re-equilibration with H₂. The isotopic heterogeneity observed in chondrites result from the turbulent mixing of grains, condensed at different epochs and locations in the solar nebula. Recent isotopic determinations of water ice in cold interstellar clouds are in agreement with these chondritic data and their interpretation (Texeira et al., 1999). This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Origin of Comet Nuclei and Dynamics

We present a review of the main physical features of comet nuclei, their birthplaces and the dynamical processes that allow some of them to reach the Sun’s neighborhood and become potentially detectable. Comets are thought to be the most primitive bodies of the solar system although some processing—for instance, melting water ice in their interiors and collisional fragmentation and reaccumulation—could have occurred after formation to alter their primordial nature. Their estimated low densities (a few tenths g?cm^?3) point to a very fluffy, porous structure, while their composition rich in water ice and other highly volatile ices point to a formation in the region of the Jovian planets, or the trans-neptunian region. The main reservoir of long-period comets is the Oort cloud, whose visible radius is ～3.3×10⁴ AU. Yet, the existence of a dense inner core cannot be ruled out, a possibility that would have been greatly favored if the solar system formed in a dense galactic environment. The trans-neptunian object Sedna might be the first discovered member that belongs to such a core. The trans-neptunian population is the main source of Jupiter family comets, and may be responsible for a large renovation of the Oort cloud population.     

随机分布介尺度油滴群的燃烧特性

对液雾燃烧中随机分布油滴群的蒸发/燃烧特性进行了数值模拟研究,详细考虑了油滴尺寸、坐标分布、数密度等相关参数的随机性。采用一步总包反应机理对其进行大涡模拟,在不同的来流速度、环境温度下,剖析了不同数密度油滴群的阻力特性及蒸发率,并结合油滴群燃烧模态分析油滴间的相互作用规律。研究表明,油滴群燃烧模态同时包含单油滴三种油滴燃烧火焰模态;各油滴表面燃料蒸气的浓度分布呈现非对称性,反应核心区发生角度偏转;在强对流环境下,蒸发/燃烧油滴群的平均表面蒸发率与阻力系数的变化与蒸发/燃烧单油滴相似,油滴间的强烈相互作用加速了油滴群蒸发/燃烧的传热传质。      

过冷大水滴动力学特性对结冰影响数值研究

对比常规水滴,过冷大水滴结冰对飞机气动性能和飞行安全具有更大的危害性。在常规水滴结冰过程数值模拟基础上,针对过冷大水滴条件下各种动力学特性及其对成冰过程的影响进行了数值研究。采用结构化网格和中心有限体积法求解 N-S 方程获得空气流场,用拉格朗日法求解水滴流场,基于改进的 Messinger 热力学模型完成结冰过程模拟;对于过冷大水滴,采用泰勒类比理论和水滴碰撞模型,对比分析了水滴动力学特性及其对结冰过程的影响;通过数值模拟获得了水滴 Langmuir D 分布的撞击特性及结冰计算结果,研究了水滴多尺度分布对成冰过程的影响规律。通过一些典型结冰算例的数值模拟,并与参考文献结果及实验数据的对比分析,说明了本文计算方法及计算模型模拟过冷大水滴结冰是可行和正确的。     

正庚烷液滴在微细直管中的燃烧特性实验

为了解微细直管对液滴形成和燃烧稳定性的影响,采用正庚烷作为燃料在内径为4mm的石英直管中的进行了实验研究.其结果显示:首先在不加热时,容易形成液滴,正庚烷体积流量小于40μL/min 时,火焰稳定性受液滴滴落的影响较大,液滴的蒸发主要受到空气体积流量影响下的火焰位置的影响;大于40μL/min时,液膜形成,火焰受液滴滴落影响不大.其次,管壁加热温度为180℃时,正庚烷体积流量低于60μL/min时难以形成液滴,大于60μL/min时液滴滴落后不形成液膜,液滴的蒸发受空气流速的影响较大,在液滴滴落以及空气流速的影响下,微燃烧器温度的变化对燃料的蒸发产生更大的影响,富燃较贫燃更易形成连续的火焰.空气流速大小对管壁温度影响明显,空气流速越小,管壁温度越高,液滴蒸发速率越大.      

飞机机翼表面霜冰的三维数值模拟

基于欧拉两相流理论对三维情况下飞机机翼表面的霜冰进行了数值模拟.根据水滴拟流体模型建立三维水滴控制方程;提出一套水滴控制方程的数值求解方法;由三维水滴流场的求解结果计算机翼表面的水滴收集特性,提出一种三维积冰外形的生成方法,完成了对飞机机翼表面霜冰的三维数值模拟.对ONERA M6机翼在不同迎角下霜冰的积冰情况进行了数值预测,并分析了结冰条件对积冰的影响.      

结冰云雾参数对冰与固壁间剪切强度影响的初步研究

基于结冰风洞实验段,建立了冰与固壁间黏附界面剪切强度测量实验装置,获得了合理的剪切强度范围。在0.3 m×0.2 m结冰风洞实验段内开展了冰与固壁间黏附界面剪切强度的测量实验。掌握了结冰环境温度、平均水滴直径等结冰云雾参数对冰与固壁间黏附剪切强度的影响规律。研究表明:结冰环境温度为-15~-10 ℃间出现了剪切强度极大值。来流速度越大,水滴的惯性力越大,水滴间的间隙越容易被填充,冰与固壁间剪切强度也就越大。平均水滴直径(MVD)为35 μm附近出现了剪切强度极小值,水滴直径越小,水滴之间的间隙就越小,结冰就越致密。水滴直径越大,水滴越容易发生平铺,水滴之间的间隙就容易被填充,反而造成剪切强度增大。      

风洞侧壁干扰对机翼表面霜冰的影响

采用数值模拟的方法研究了不同阻塞度下侧壁干扰对NACA0012翼型表面霜冰生长的影响。通过对流场和水滴撞击特性的研究发现:侧壁干扰会压缩来流空气,致使更多水滴跟随气流向机翼前缘汇集,增大了翼面水滴收集系数,且翼面水滴总收集量与阻塞度成正比、与液滴雷诺数成反比;同时会改变水滴的撞击方向,使水滴撞击极限和最大水收集系数的位置发生偏移。采用多步法对结冰特性的研究发现:在基准计算工况下,当阻塞度为20%时,侧壁干扰效应带来结冰量的相对附加增量约为16%;在同一阻塞度下,各时间步长内的结冰相对附加增量基本相等。提出了一种表征侧壁干扰对水滴收集影响强弱的因子,该影响因子与水滴收集相对附加增量具有较高的线性关系。