Policy making in China’s space program: A history and analysis of the Chang’e lunar orbiter project

China’s space program is one of the most advanced, rapidly improving and opaque in the world. Insight into the program’s policy-making process could help eliminate misunderstandings, make intentions more clear and promote stability in US–China relations. This case study of China’s first lunar orbiting probe traces the project from initial policy proposal through agenda-setting, policy approval and final policy implementation. It reveals a highly rational decision-making process that is ruled by incrementalism, consensus building, scientific judgment and the use of leading small groups to coordinate among ministries. This research was guided by several relevant theories, including the “fragmented authoritarian” framework of power, the theory of the “policy entrepreneur” and the recently developed “inside access model”. The paper is one of the first published accounts in the English language to detail, from policy proposal to policy implementation, China’s first mission to the Moon.     

Agronomy in space – China’s crop breeding program

Using the US-coined concept of space industrialization and reflecting the ongoing creation of a space economy, this paper maintains that China’s 20-odd years of practice and achievement in crop breeding in space should be seen as an integral part of any space economy. The paper analyzes the Chinese government’s space breeding policies, its support for it via financial allocation, and the relevant programs, and highlights the key achievements so far achieved in the sector. In conclusion, it outlines the main hurdles to crop breeding in space but looks forward to a bright future for this activity.     

Registration of space objects: ESA member states’ practice

The registration of space objects is indispensable for the orderly administration of outer space. Most states recognize this and comply with the instruments—the Registration Convention and the UN General Assembly Resolution—set up to permit registration, but they display different approaches to and interpretations of the concept of registration. This article examines the registration practices of various European Space Agency (ESA) member states and of ESA itself. It finds that, despite varied policies, the system seems to be working well. However, there has been a worrying rise in non-registrations over the past few years, perhaps linked to the growth in the number of, especially commercial, entities engaging in space activities.     

The growing ‘securitization’ of outer space

Discussions of space security tend to recurrently return to the vexed issue of the ‘militarization’ and ‘weaponization’ of outer space. Debate over whether or not a sustainable definition can be maintained between these two concepts has been a feature of both academic and policy discourses, and has been particularly contentious with regard to new proposals for arms control in outer space. Yet, this paper argues, the militarization/weaponization debate fails to capture to vagaries of contemporary space policy with regard to understandings of ‘security’, and is in this sense an insufficient way of approaching the subject of space security in the first instance. Instead it is now more accurate to say that outer space is becoming ever more ‘securitized’: that is, access to space is now commonly framed as crucial to the military, economic and environmental security of leading states and international organizations.     

Improving Africa’s benefit from space applications: The European-African partnership

There is little overview of how space applications are utilized by African actors and how cooperation between Africa and Europe is organized and conducted. This article aims briefly to provide such an overview and concretely to make recommendations for institutional actors in European-African partnerships on the use of space applications for sustainable development. The Africa-EU partnership is analysed from a political, economic, social, technological, environmental and legal standpoint and respective policy recommendations are drafted on this basis. No other continent can benefit more from space applications than Africa. It will be partnerships like the one between Europe and Africa that will be crucial for realizing this great potential.     

Some principles of space strategy (or ‘Corbett in orbit’)

There is still little theory on the strategic use of space. Some have proposed naval theorist A.T. Mahan as a guide but this viewpoint argues that, while the analogy with sea power makes sense, it is the naval theories of Sir Julian Corbett that are most apt. Parallels are drawn between the latter's emphasis on attacking commerce as the best means of crippling a seafaring state and the implications of the current US dependence on trade in information. Ways for the USA to mitigate its vulnerability in this area are suggested.     

The european space agency's earth observation satellite programmes

After a short presentation of the Meteosat and Sirio-2 programmes, the paper describes the elements of the ESA Remote Sensing Programmes for polar, Sun-synchronous orbits: Earthnet, a network of ground stations receiving data for present and future American satellites, and future European programmes; Spacelab, whose first flight will include high resolution visible and IR cameras, and radar; ERS-1, for radar observation of oceans and polar caps. Future ESA programmes are outlined.     

Science in the national vision for space exploration: objectives and constituencies of the ‘discovery-driven’ paradigm

The NASA/White House Vision for Space Exploration is primarily focused on the development of human and robotic systems that will enable ‘discovery-driven’ investigations in areas important to the scientific community: Mars, the solar system's outer moons, and planets orbiting other stars. Such a portfolio can only be realized if NASA is prepared to target investment at opportunities that are most scientifically compelling. NASA's leaders will have to make decisions in subjective and uncertain environments about the relative long-term value of different kinds of scientific discoveries seen as equally important to different groups. A management paradigm of this kind will imply assessment of heterogeneous priorities and management of interdependent and changing requirements. In order to identify the basis and implications of a ‘discovery-driven’ paradigm, this paper surveys the relationship between the Vision's principles and its programmatic content, the objectives of the Vision's scientific focus areas and their interrelationships, and the public context in which science-focused exploration will proceed.     

Science and technology for national development: The case of Israel's space program

In the last 25 years Israel developed highly advanced space industry and capable indigenous infrastructure of space technology. The special interconnections between the academia, the industry and different government agencies had a valuable influence on this successful process. This paper identifies and analyzes the characteristics of this partnership. It addresses the issue of sustaining this partnership and maintain it as a major driving force of the Israeli space program in order to provide some conclusions for similar actors, seeking to enhance their space activities and capabilities.     

Walter Hohmann's contributions towards space flight: an appreciation on the occasion of the centenary of his birthday

In 1923 Hermann Oberth published his book “Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen” (The Rocket into Planetary Space), in 1924 Max Valier's book “Der Vorstoss in den Weltenraum” (The Advance into Space) appeared while in the U.S.A. already in 1919 Robert H. Goddard reported on his rocket experiments. Altogether different from the publications just mentioned was a book entitled “Die Erreichbarkeit der Himmelskörper” (The Attainability of Celestial Bodies) published in 1925. Its author was Dr.-Ing. Walter Hohmann, born 18 March 1880, civil engineer for the city authorities of Essen, who had already made, during World War I, calculations as to the amount of fuel, initial mass and flight time necessary for flights from the Earth to other planets. The transfer trajectories investigated by Hohmann and today attributed with his name have a great practical significance for space flight onto the present. In the lecture a critical appreciation of Hohmann's work is given.     

When inspiration fails to inspire: A change of strategy for the US space program

A pressing issue facing the US space program is the projected shortfall in the skilled aerospace workforce, as the number of students in space-related fields wanes. This has prompted many to emphasize the rhetoric of inspiration that prevailed during the Cold War, at the expense of concrete arguments for space that are thought to be lackluster and insufficient. This essay argues that the logic of inspiration fails to consider the changed context and attitudes of this younger public. Instead, such an approach proves counterproductive in attracting generations compelled by a host of ideas, some incompatible with the rhetoric of competition and prestige that prevailed before. Arguments that draw attention to the pragmatic elements of space, and that successfully align space with the notions that make sense now, may in turn prove to be the solution to draw the best and the brightest to the space program.     

The ‘Star Wars’ initiative: Problems and prospects

This article examines the long-term ‘Star Wars’ R&D programme initiated by President Reagan - the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). The nature of this initiative and the research programme that has been approved are described. There is still considerable uncertainty over where the SDI research will eventually lead - whether it be a limited BMD system designed to protect military targets or a comprehensive shield to protect the USA and its allies. The feasibility and potential implications of the SDI are examined with this caveat in mind.     

Eugen Sänger: Eminent space pioneer

In international literature on astronautics, three main space pioneers are mentioned: Konstantin E. Tsiolkovsky, Robert H. Goddard and Hermann Oberth. There are other two space pioneers that are very rarely mentioned: Robert Esnault-Pelterie and Eugen Sänger. Pelterie is known particularly in Europe, and Sänger is mentioned in the second half of the 20th century normally only in connection with space shuttle flights.Taking a look at Sänger's work and heritage, it is obvious that he greatly influenced the development of astronautics in terms of purely theoretical dissertations on achievable limits of space research as well as in terms of technical approaches to achieving the short- and long-term goals of astronautics, and in terms of setting tasks for organizing mankind to achieve these goals. Sänger's book “The Technology of Rocket Flight” was the first study based not only on basic research, but also on the applied research that he conducted and the findings of which he published in various papers. Sänger was clearly connected with and influenced the development of two experimental research groups in the US in the 1930s, which resulted in two of the most significant companies in the US in the 1950s that manufactured liquid propellant rocket engines. Basic and applied research in the field of space planes resulted in construction of rocket planes such as the US space shuttle and Soviet Buran shuttle.Sänger's research on subsonic and supersonic ramjets in combination with a turbojet engine provided a basis for developing this promising propulsion for use in subsequent space planes designed for flights into low Earth orbits. His pioneering work on the photon rocket represents human achievements in reaching almost unimaginable limits of space research.By striving for a peaceful international approach to space research, Sänger participated in establishing the non-governmental organization IAF (International Astronautical Federation) and realized his idea that space research is a concern for all mankind. He was therefore appointed the first president of the IAF.The paper presents how Sänger influenced the development of rocket technology and astronautics, which definitely ranks him with the first three space pioneers.     

Japanese space policy during the 1980s: A balance between autonomy and international cooperation

In the mid-1980s, Japan decided not only to invest in a totally domestic rocket, “H-II,” to acquire its independent access to space, but also to participate in the U.S. Space Station program to promote international space cooperation. Not until then did Japan try to achieve simultaneously both autonomy and international cooperation. This paper reexamines how Japan achieved a balance between autonomy and international cooperation in its space activities during the 1980s, from the perspective of Japan–U.S. diplomatic history. Against the background of the Japan–U.S. relations of those days, the similarities and differences between the two big space programs made it possible for Japan to decide them at the same time of the mid-1980s.     

International cooperation in space: the AIAA–IAC workshops

Over the past decade the International Activities Committee (IAC) of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) has organized a series of six workshops on international space cooperation. The major findings and recommendations that have emerged from these workshops are summarized, clustered by topic, with a reference to the report on the particular workshop at which they were made. The authors comment on the relevance of certain of the findings in today's environment and the status of implementation of associated recommendations.     

Cost–benefit analysis of space exploration: Some ethical considerations

Humanity faces many important decisions about space exploration. A major but controversial decision-making paradigm is cost–benefit analysis (CBA). This paper discusses some ethical considerations in CBA that are important to decision making about space exploration, including how we define costs and benefits; space exploration's non-market value; the standing of future humans and of extraterrestrials; and the role of discounting in evaluating long-term space exploration projects.     

Surreal estate: addressing the issue of ‘Immovable Property Rights on the Moon’

At a time when scientific and commercial interest in the Moon is being reinvigorated it is becoming fashionable for ordinary individuals to ‘buy’ plots on the lunar surface, with the ‘vendors’ arguing that an absence of specific prohibition of individual private activity in space makes such action legal. It is therefore time for the legal community to address this situation by investigating just how legal such activity is—and bringing their findings to the attention of governments. This can be done through an examination of the relationship between national law and international space law, of the provisions of international space law—especially Article 2 of the Outer Space Treaty—and by answering any claims to private ownership of immovable property. Aside from the fact that individuals appear to be being duped, the pursuit of property claims on the Moon could impede future activities aimed at benefiting society.     

The National Space Biomedical Research Institute's education and public outreach program: Working toward a global 21st century space exploration society

Space Exploration educators worldwide are confronting challenges and embracing opportunities to prepare students for the global 21st century workforce. The National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI), established in 1997 through a NASA competition, is a 12-university consortium dedicated to space life science research and education. NSBRI's Education and Public Outreach Program (EPOP) is advancing the Institute's mission by responding to global educational challenges through activities that: provide teacher professional development; develop curricula that teach students to communicate with their peers across the globe; provide women and minority US populations with greater access to, and awareness of science careers; and promote international science education partnerships.A recent National Research Council (NRC) Space Studies Board Report, America's Future in Space: Aligning the Civil Program with National Needs, acknowledges that “a capable workforce for the 21st century is a key strategic objective for the US space program… (and that) US problems requiring best efforts to understand and resolve…are global in nature and must be addressed through mutual worldwide action”. [1] This sentiment has gained new momentum through a recent National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) report, which recommends that the life of the International Space Station be extended beyond the planned 2016 termination. [2] The two principles of globalization and ISS utility have elevated NSBRI EPOP efforts to design and disseminate science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) educational materials that prepare students for full participation in a globalized, high technology society; promote and provide teacher professional development; create research opportunities for women and underserved populations; and build international educational partnerships.This paper describes select EPOP projects and makes the case for using innovative, emerging information technologies to transfer space exploration knowledge to students, engage educators from across the globe in discourse about science curricula, and foster multimedia collaborations that inform citizens about the benefits of space exploration for life on Earth. Special references are made to educational activities conducted at professional meetings in Austria, Canada, France, China, Greece, Italy, Russia, Scotland and Spain.