Effects of the long-term ESA programme on employment : Eurospace

European countries will be urged to undertake a new space programme, prepared under the direction of the European Space Agency (ESA). Can the financial efforts requested of them be considered as a profitable investment? This article examines the historical and potential effects of the European space programmes on employment, both within and outside the space sector.     

Europe — towards a new long-term programme

The European response to the US invitation to participate in the space station programme will determine the long-term future of the European space industry. The European Space Agency is charged with replying to the invitation, which will be one of the items on the agenda of the first ministerial meeting of the Council in early 1985. All going well, by the end of 1985 Europe will have developed a new long-term strategy towards space which will include substantial collaboration with the USA.     

European space research in support of international partnership

The envisaged future space research programmes, whether in the field of space exploration or Earth observation are becoming more and more technically complicated and so costly that a single nation can hardly afford to realize them. Major non-European space-faring nations, China and India will progressively play an important role besides US, Russia and Japan. The Space Advisory Group of the European Commission recommended that the European Commission supports within Horizon 2020 a comprehensive Robotic Mars-Exploration Programme under European leadership that should become an essential element of a coordinated international space research programme. The International Space Station (ISS) experience shows that cooperative space programmes build links between industries and laboratories from around the world, which then further develop in non-space related activities, with positive impact on the economy and scientific research. Strategies need to be developed to mitigate the gradual increasing risks incurred by climate change. In order to lower their entry barrier to engage in space emerging and developing space nations need to be included in cooperative space programmes. We present the recommendations of the Space Advisory Group of the European Commission concerning Europe's participation to global space endeavours.     

European response to the NASA space station initiative

This article contrasts the political motivations behind the US space station initiative with those underlying the European Space Agency's Long Term Plan. Philip Chandler concludes that European cooperation in NASA's space station programme (SSP) will serve three needs: to buy time; to allow European users to undertake longer, manned experiments; and, to keep the Spacelab teams intact. However, in itself the SSP holds little value for Europe.     

Space and maritime security–strategies for countering the pirates

Following previous work on space and internal security as part of the European Space Policy Institute's (ESPI) Space and Security programme, ESPI initiated a workshop dealing with an issue of high political as well as public concern – using space as an instrument in the broader strategic context of maritime security – together with the Austrian Institute for European and Security Policy (AIES), which has special expertise in security matters related to Europe. Over 50 high-ranking professionals took part in the 30 November 2009 event, “Space and Maritime Security - Strategies and Capabilities to Counter Piracy”, held at the Austrian Chamber of Commerce (WKÖ) in Vienna. The use of space assets for maritime security has moved up the political agenda as a result of the reliance of the EU ATALANTA NAVFOR mission on services and data provided by the European Union Satellite Centre (EUSC). The workshop therefore addressed technological capabilities as well as industrial approaches in the context of the political framework conditions. It provided a dialogue between space and non-space security communities.     

Developments in space activities in Poland

Poland has a long-standing tradition in space activities. Polish institutions have participated as co-investigators in almost all European Space Agency (ESA) science projects, as well as on many other missions. However, the first Polish satellite (PW-SAT) was only launched in 2012. Poland was one of the first Eastern European countries to conclude a Cooperation Agreement with ESA in the peaceful use of outer space; it was signed in 1994 and followed by a second in January 2002. Negotiations on Polish membership in the ESA were started in autumn of 2011, and ended in April 2012. Following ratification of the agreement, Poland officially became the 20th Member State of ESA on 19 November 2012. This article examines how Poland is setting its way as a space nation. It describes recent developments in the Polish space programme, including the road to Poland's full membership in the European Space Agency.     

EVA 2000: a European/Russian space suit concept

For the European manned space activities an EVA space suit system was being developed in the frame of the Hermes Space Vehicle Programme of the European Space Agency (ESA). The space suit was to serve the needs for all relevant extravehicular activities for the Hermes Columbus operations planned to begin in 2004. For the present Russian manned space programme the relevant EVAs are performed by the Orlan-DMA semi-rigid space suit. The origin of its development reaches back to the 1970s and has since been adapted to cover the needs for extravehicular activities on Salyut and MIR until today. The latest modification of the space suit, which guaranteed its completely self-contained operation, was made in 1988. However, Russian specialists considered it necessary to start developing an EVA space suit of a new generation, which would have improved performance and would cover the needs by the turn of the century and into the beginning of the next century. Potentially these two suit developments could have a lot in common based on similarities in present concepts. As future manned space activities become more and more an international effort, a safe and reliable interoperability of the different space suit systems is required. Based on the results of the Munich Minister Conference in 1991, the European Space Agency and the Russian Space Agency agreed to initiate a requirements analysis and conceptual design study to determine the feasibility of a joint space suit development, EVA 2000. The design philosophy for the EVA 2000 study was oriented on a space suit system design of: space suit commonality and interoperability; increased crew productivity and safety; increase in useful life and reduced maintainability; reduced development and production cost. The EVA 2000 feasibility study was performed in 1992, and with the positive conclusions for EVA 2000, this approach became the new joint European Russian EVA Suit 2000 Development Programme. This paper gives an overview of the results of the feasibility study and presents the joint requirements and the proposed design concept of a jointly developed European Russian space suit.     

Europe's next move

Some time before the end of the first quarter of 1991 the Ministerial Council of the European Space Agency will be taking decisions about the development phases of the Columbus and Hermes programmes. The prospects for completing either programme within the originally approved costs are not bright, and operational costs will be three times the amount the ESA spends on its scientific programme. Are they good value for money? The author argues that Europe is in danger of yielding to others the lead in the next generation of space flight.     

Small missions: exploiting the opportunities

This is an edited part of a report by the European consortium Eurospace on the potential for the continent of small missions. A growing feature of the space market for communications, Earth observations and science and technology development, they represent both a threat of missing an important future market and an opportunity to develop a new capability offering better value for money and increasing the effectiveness of European space endeavours. A new pump-priming programme, the European Small Space Missions Initiative (ESSMI), is put forward to avoid the present vicious circle in which small missions are not proposed because of the lack of launch opportunities and launch vehicles are not developed because of lack of demand.     

EVA Suit 2000: a joint European/Russian space suit design

A feasibility study in 1992 showed the benefits of a common European Russian space suit development, EVA Suit 2000, replacing the Russian space suit Orlan-DMA and the planned European Hermes EVA space suit at the turn of the century. This EVA Suit 2000 is a joint development initiated by the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Russian Space Agency (RKA). The main objectives of this development program are: first utilization aboard the Russian Space Station MIR-2; performance improvement with respect to current operational suits; development cost reduction. Russian experience gained with the present extravehicular activity (EVA) suit on the MIR Space Station and extensive application of European Technologies will be needed to achieve these ambitious goals. This paper presents the current status of the development activities, the space suit system design and concentrates in more detail on life support aspects. Specific subjects addressed will include the overall life support conceptual architecture, design features, crew comfort and operational considerations.     

The European space exploration programme: current status of ESA's plans for Moon and Mars exploration

After a large consultation with the scientific and industrial communities in Europe, the Aurora Space Exploration Programme was unanimously approved at the European Space Agency (ESA) Council at ministerial level in Edinburgh in 2001. This marked the start of the programme's preparation phase that was due to finish by the end of 2004. Aurora features technology development robotic and crewed rehearsal missions aimed at preparing a human mission to Mars by 2033. Due to the evolving context, both international and European, ESA has undertaken a review of the goals and approach of its exploration programme. While maintaining the main robotic missions that had been conceived during Aurora, the European Space Exploration Programme that is currently being proposed to the Aurora participating states and other ESA Member States has a reviewed approach and will feature a greater synergy with other ESA programmes. The paper will present the process that led to the revision of ESA's plans in the field of exploration and will give the current status of the programme.     

The Columbus programme : European steps towards the considered development of near-Earth space

The European Space Agency's Columbus Programme is nearing the end of its study phase and European ministers now need to take decisions on proceeding with the development phase. Columbus is directed towards the creation of an autonomous European space capability, and at the same time towards furthering genuine partnership with the USA on the international Space Station. This article reviews the elements which make up the Columbus Programme, and examines their probable developments over the next few years. The need for ESA to ensure coherence among the major European space initiatives is stressed.     

The challenges and opportunities of a commercial human spaceflight mission to the ISS

ESA astronauts' ISS flight opportunities are considered as a vital source to meet the utilisation, operation and political objectives that Europe has established for participating in the International Space Station programme. Recent internal ESA assessments have demonstrated that a rate of three flights per year for European Astronauts should be maintained as a minimum objective. The current flight rate is lower than this. In order to improve this situation, in the context of the activation of the ESA ISS Commercialisation programme, ESA is developing the conditions for the establishment of commercially based human spaceflights with the financial support of both ESA and the private sector or, in the future, only the latter. ESA is working in a Partnership with the space industry to facilitate the implementation of such projects and support customers with a range of end-to-end commercial services. The opportunities and challenges of a "commercial human spaceflight", involving a member of the European Astronaut Corps, or a privately employed flight participant, are discussed here.     

The UK parliamentary space committee: The emergence of a space lobby?

In the past few years the UK has become increasingly active as the financial conscience of the European Space Agency. This is not because the UK government has a wish to spend more on its national space effort; it is because it remains unconvinced of the benefits of certain European space activities, notably manned endeavours. In the absence of an effective UK space lobby, the government's policies have remained largely unchallenged. This article traces the growth of the Parliamentary Space Committee in the context of developments in recent European space policy and highlights the need for an active UK space lobby.     

Creating a European internal security strategy involving space applications

Space applications are used for countering a wide variety of external security threats but their use for the provision of internal security (for non-military threats like terrorism, organised crime or illegal immigration) is still largely neglected. Several steps have recently been taken to consider space applications for counter-terrorism and other internal security threats. In the context of the general call for a specific European security research programme, the European Union’s Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development (FP 7) is conducting several projects using space applications for fighting internal security threats. However, current attempts remain scattered across national and European initiatives, policy fields and pillars, institutional actors and actors involved in various projects. There is thus a strong need for a more integrated approach at the EU-level through a European Internal Security Strategy complementing the existing European Security Strategy. The US has been looking at the provision of homeland security for some time. A revision of existing structures in Europe should thus not neglect the dimension of transatlantic cooperation in this policy area.     

US space commercialization — effects on space law and domestic law

This report by Harry Marshall Jr is based on a paper presented to the 27th International Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space of the International Institute of Space Law during the 35th Congress of the International Astronautical Federation, Lausanne, Switzerland, 9 October 1984. It outlines US attitudes and legislation on the commercialization of space, in particular the space programme of President Reagan, LANDSAT commercialization, ELV commercialization and conflicts of space law.     

Priorities in space for the USA

This article follows the story of Shuttle development, in the context of the history of the US space programme from Apollo to the Space Station. The Shuttle was chosen as one of a series of ‘space spectaculars’ and has proven to be prohibitively expensive and unreliable, practical only for a very limited number of specialized missions. The Space Station, too, cannot be economically supplied, even if the USA could afford to build it. The author concludes that NASA should cancel the Space Station and the replacement orbiter for Challenger, and engage on a major programme of launch vehicle development, independent of the US military. The aim should be a dramatic reduction of launch vehicle costs, making spaceflight practical, and a truly independent NASA which could restore the USA to space preeminence.     

Intellectual property rights and space activities

On 5 and 6 December 1994, a two-day workshop was organised by the European Space Agency (ESA) and the European Centre for Space Law (ECSL) at ESA's Headquarters in Paris on the theme ‘Intellectual property rights and space activities: a worldwide perspective’. It was attended by some 90 participants and 16 papers were presented, analysing legal and policy issues with regard to intellectual property rights (IPRs) and space activities in a world context.     

Competing for a future in space: NASA and the Department of Defense

Although the 1958 Space Act stressed the civilian nature of the US space programme, the military space budget has grown to over twice the size of NASA's. Military influence on US space policy has grown accordingly. NASA has failed in articulating a sense of direction and purpose for the civilian space programme justifying sustained and adequate support. What matters most for a reinvigorated NASA is the level of commitment the nation is prepared to make, and in today's political climate greater spending on a civilian space programme would be unpopular. The USA looks likely to continue to fall behind in the international competition for space leadership.